Facts and Figures

ðər ə ˈtuː ˈkaɪnz əv stəˈtɪstɪks | ðə ˈkaɪnʤu ˈlʊk ˈʌp | ən ðə ˈkaɪnʤu ˈmeɪk ˈʌp

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Commentary

there: When there has its existential use (e.g. There's a man outside. /ðəz ə ˈmæn ˈaʊtˈsaɪd/ There's a pen on the table. /ðəz ə ˈpen ɒn ðə ˈteɪbl̩/ There are too many. /ðər ə ˈtuː ˈmeni/ There were two choices. /ðə wə ˈtuː ˈʧɔɪsɪz), it is usually unstressed and has the weak form /ðə/. 

When a word ends in schwa /ə/ and is immediately followed (without a pause) by a word beginning with a vowel, the consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels. This process is known as /r/-liaison and also occurs after /ɑː ɔː ɜː eə ɪə ʊə/.

are: When unstressed, as it usually is, are has the weak form /ə/.

two: Numbers are usually stressed and don’t have weak forms.

kinds: When /d/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is immediately preceded by a consonant, it is commonly elided/deleted when another consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or, as in this case, in a suffix.

of: When unstressed, as it usually is, of has the weak form /əv/. When a consonant immediately follows in the next word, of can have the form /ə/. This is particularly common before /ð/ (e.g. of the, of those, of them, of this, of that) and in high-frequency phrases (e.g. a cup of tea, a bunch of grapes).

statistics: Plural s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the noun:

•          /ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
•          /s/ after the remaining voiceless consonants
•          /z/ after vowels and the remaining voiced consonants.

The same pattern applies to third person singular s, possessive s and the contraction of is.

the: When unstressed, as it usually is, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/ when the following word begins with a consonant.

kind you: When a word ends with /d/ and the immediately following word begins with /j/, the /d/ and the /j/ can combine to form /ʤ/. This is known as coalescent assimilation. It is most common with the high-frequency words you and your, especially when they occur with grammatical inversion, e.g. could you /ˈkʊʤu/, would you /ˈwʊʤu/, did your /ˈdɪʤɔː/, etc.

The symbol u represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

look up/make up: These two phrasal verbs would usually have their main stress on the word up, but in this joke the two phrasal verbs are contrasted and so the main stress is put on the two elements, look and make, that are different and not on up, which is common to both phrasal verbs.

up: The word up has no weak form.

and: When unstressed, as it usually is, and has the weak form /ən/ or /ənd/. Some books say that /ən/ is used before consonants and /ənd/ before vowels, but this is not true. While both forms can be heard before consonants and vowels, /ən/ is much more common than /ənd/. Learners can safely use only /ən/ for the weak form of and because it will never be wrong to do so.

There are two kinds of statistics: the kind you look up and the kind you make up.

A Treasure Chest

ˈwɒts əˈnʌðə ˈwɜːd | fər ə θəˈsɔːrəs

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Commentary

what’s: When unstressed, as it usually is, the word is can have three different pronunciations, depending on the final sound of the immediately preceding word:

•        When the final sound of the preceding word is /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/, then is has the form /ɪz/, e.g. Chris is well /ˈkrɪs ɪz ˈwel/.
•        When the final sound of the preceding word is a voiceless consonants (excluding the consonants listed above), then is has the form /s/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. Jack is well /ˈʤæks ˈwel/.
•        If the final sound of the preceding word is voiced (i.e. a vowel or a voiced consonant (excluding the consonants listed above)), then is has the form /z/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. John is well /ˈʤɒnz ˈwel/.

This is the same pattern as with possessive s, plural s and the third person singular s.

In its various uses, the word what is usually stressed and has no weak form.

for: When unstressed, as it usually is, for has the weak form /fə/.

When a word ends in schwa /ə/ and is immediately followed (without a pause) by a word beginning with a vowel, the consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels. This process is known as /r/-liaison and also occurs after /ɑː ɔː ɜː eə ɪə ʊə/.

a: When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.

What’s another word for a thesaurus?

Good Scholarship

ɪf ju ˈstiːl frəm ˈwʌn ˈɔːθə | ɪts ˈpleɪʤərɪzm̩ || ɪf ju ˈstiːl frəm ˈmeni | ɪts rɪˈsɜːʧ

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Commentary

if: Although if is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t have a weak form.

you: The symbol u represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

from: When unstressed, as it usually is, from has the weak form /frəm/.

one: Numbers are usually stressed and don’t have weak forms.

it’s: When unstressed, as it usually is, the word is can have three different pronunciations, depending on the final sound of the immediately preceding word:

•          When the final sound of the preceding word is /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/, then is has the form /ɪz/, e.g. Chris is well /ˈkrɪs ɪz ˈwel/.
•          When the final sound of the preceding word is a voiceless consonants (excluding the consonants listed above), then is has the form /s/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. Jack is well /ˈʤæks ˈwel/.
•          If the final sound of the preceding word is voiced (i.e. a vowel or a voiced consonant (excluding the consonants listed above)), then is has the form /z/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. John is well /ˈʤɒnz ˈwel/.

plagiarism: In the British tradition of phonetics, stresses which occur after the primary/main stress in a word are not usually indicated in transcription (except in compounds, e.g. post office /ˈpəʊst ˌɒfɪs/). For practical TEFL purposes, it isn’t usually important whether they are marked or not. In the case of the word plagiarism, however, a transcription without a such a stress mark is a little misleading. The transcription /ˈpleɪʤərɪzm̩/ suggests that the word contains a sequence of schwa /ə/ plus /r/ plus an unstressed vowel and that therefore the schwa /ə/ can be elided (as it often is in memory /ˈmemri/, factory /ˈfæktri/, corporate /ˈkɔːprət/, etc.), when in fact the following syllable is stressed, i.e. /ˈpleɪʤəˌrɪzm̩/ and the schwa /ə/ can’t be elided.

many: The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

research: The traditional pronunciation of this word is /rɪˈsɜːʧ/ and the new variant is /ˈriːsɜːʧ/. At the moment to two variants appear to be roughly equally common, meaning that the learner can use either. Some people perhaps use /ˈriːsɜːʧ/ for the noun and /rɪˈsɜːʧ/ for the verb, but there is no general rule and learners needn’t follow this pattern.

If you steal from one author, it’s plagiarism. If you steal from many, it’s research.

Elegant Variation

ə ˈsɪnənɪm | ɪz ə ˈwɜːʤu ˈjuːz | ˈwen ju ˈkɑːnt ˈspel ðə ˈwɜːʤu ˈfɜːs ˈθɔːt ˈɒv

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Commentary

a: When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.

word you: When a word ends with /d/ and the immediately following word begins with /j/, the /d/ and the /j/ can combine to form /ʤ/. This is known as coalescent assimilation. It is most common with the high-frequency words you and your, especially when they occur with grammatical inversion, e.g. could you /ˈkʊʤu/, would you /ˈwʊʤu/, did your /ˈdɪʤɔː/, etc.

The symbol u represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

use: Note that the verb use /juːz/ has a different pronunciation from the noun use /juːs/.

when: In all its various uses when is usually stressed and has no weak form.

can’t: Although function/grammatical words are generally unstressed in English, negative contractions such as can’t (and don’t, won’t, can’t shouldn’t, etc.) are usually stressed.

the: When unstressed, as it usually is, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/ when the following word begins with a consonant.

first: When /t/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is immediately preceded by a consonant (except /l/ and /n/), it is commonly elided/deleted when another consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or in a suffix.

of: When a preposition is grammatically stranded, i.e. it doesn’t appear directly before the noun phrase it relates to, it is stressed and appears in its strong form. This is most common:

•          In relative clauses, e.g. the man that I looked at /ðə ˈmæn ðət aɪ ˈlʊkt ˈæt/, the team that I played for /ðə ˈtiːm ðət aɪ ˈpleɪd ˈfɔː/
•          In wh-questions, e.g. Who did you run to? /ˈhuː dɪd ju ˈrʌn ˈtuː/, What did you dream of? /ˈwɒt dɪd ju ˈdriːm ˈɒv/
•          In passive sentences, e.g. They were laughed at. /ðeɪ wə ˈlɑːft ˈæt/, I was turned to. /aɪ wəz ˈtɜːnd ˈtuː/

A synonym is a word you use when you can’t spell the word you first thought of.

An Important Rule

ə ˈprepəˈzɪʃn̩ | ɪz ˈsʌmθɪŋ ju ʃʊd ˈnevər ˈend ə ˈsentəns ˈwɪð

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Commentary

a: When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.

preposition: Phonemically, the final syllable of preposition is /ən/. When this syllable is preceded by /ʃ/, however, the schwa /ə/ often isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /ʃ/ to the position for /n/. This is relatively easy to do because /ʃ/ is a fricative, a category of sound which involves making a very narrow stricture in the vocal tract. It is possible, therefore, for the articulators to move from such a position to the complete closure required for /n/ (accompanied by the lowering of the soft palate to allow air to escape out through the nose) without passing through the position for a vowel and thereby avoiding an intervening schwa /ə/.

Note that in English, syllabic /n/ is not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the syllable /ən/. This means that when we use a special symbol [n̩] for it in transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to show a particular phonetic detail).

you: The symbol u represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

should: When unstressed, as it often is, the modal verb should can be pronounced /ʃʊd/ or with the weak form /ʃəd/. For the sake of simplicity, learners can use the pronunciation /ʃʊd/ for both stressed and unstressed should and ignore the weak form.

never: When a word ends in schwa /ə/ and is immediately followed (without a pause) by a word beginning with a vowel, the consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels. This process is known as /r/-liaison and also occurs after /ɑː ɔː ɜː eə ɪə ʊə/.

sentence: The syllable /əns/ often results in syllabic consonant when preceded by /t/ (e.g. importance, pittance), but not usually when the /t/ is preceded by /n/ (e.g. repentance /rɪˈpentəns/, acquaintance /əˈkweɪntəns/).

A preposition is something you should never end a sentence with.

A Shortcut

ˈwaɪz əˈbriːviˈeɪʃn̩ | ˈsʌʧ ə ˈlɒŋ ˈwɜːd

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Commentary

why’s: When unstressed, as it usually is, the word is can have three different pronunciations, depending on the final sound of the immediately preceding word:

•          When the final sound of the preceding word is /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/, then is has the form /ɪz/, e.g. Chris is well /ˈkrɪs ɪz ˈwel/.
•          When the final sound of the preceding word is a voiceless consonants (excluding the consonants listed above), then is has the form /s/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. Jack is well /ˈʤæks ˈwel/.
•          If the final sound of the preceding word is voiced (i.e. a vowel or a voiced consonant (excluding the consonants listed above)), then is has the form /z/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. John is well /ˈʤɒnz ˈwel/.

The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

abbreviation: Phonemically, the final syllable of abbreviation is /ən/. When this syllable is preceded by /ʃ/, however, the schwa /ə/ often isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /ʃ/ to the position for /n/. This is relatively easy to do because /ʃ/ is a fricative, a category of sound which involves making a very narrow stricture in the vocal tract. It is possible, therefore, for the articulators to move from such a position to the complete closure required for /n/ (accompanied by the lowering of the soft palate to allow air to escape out through the nose) without passing through the position for a vowel and thereby avoiding an intervening schwa /ə/.

Note that in English, syllabic /n/ is not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the syllable /ən/. This means that when we use a special symbol [n̩] for it in transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to show a particular phonetic detail).

such: The word such is often stressed, but when it isn’t (notably in the phrase such as), it occasionally has the weak form /səʧ/.

a: When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.

Why’s ‘abbreviation’ such a long word?

A Gifted Musician

kən ju ˈpleɪ ðə ˈvaɪəˈlɪn ||
aɪ də ˈnəʊ || aɪv ˈnevə ˈtraɪd

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Commentary

can: When unstressed, as it usually is, the modal verb can has the weak from /kən/.

you: The symbol u represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

the: When unstressed, as it usually is, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/ when the following word begins with a consonant.

I: Although I is a monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

don’t know: The high-frequency phrase don’t know can be pronounced /də ˈnəʊ/ with don’t being unstressed and reduced to /də/. Other variants include /ˈdəʊ ˈnəʊ/, /ˈdəʊn ˈnəʊ/ and /ˈdəʊnt ˈnəʊ/.

I’ve: When unstressed, as it usually is, auxiliary have has the weak form /v/ when preceded by the pronouns I, you, we or they. The weak form combines with these pronouns to form the contractions I’ve /aɪv/, you’ve /ju(ː)v/, we’ve /wi(ː)v/ and they’ve /ðeɪv/.

tried: The regular -ed ending has three pronunciations:

•          /ɪd/ after /t/ or /d/
•          /t/ after all other voiceless consonants
•          /d/ after vowels and all other voiced consonants

Can you play the violin?

I dunno. I’ve never tried.

Mother Nature

ˈbaɪəˈlɒʤɪkli ˈspiːkɪŋ | ɪf ˈsʌmθɪŋ ˈbaɪts ju | ɪts ˈmɔː ˈlaɪkli tə bi ˈfiːmeɪl

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Commentary

biologically: When a word ends in -ic, the adverbial suffix takes the form -ally instead of the usual -ly (exception: publicly),  but is still pronounced the same, i.e. /li/.

The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

if: Although if is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

bites: The third person singular s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the verb:

•          /ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
•          /s/ after the remaining voiceless consonants
•          /z/ after vowels and the remaining voiced consonants.

The same pattern applies to plural s, possessive s and the contraction of is.

you: The symbol u represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

it’s: When unstressed, as it usually is, the word is can have three different pronunciations, depending on the final sound of the immediately preceding word:

•          When the final sound of the preceding word is /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/, then is has the form /ɪz/, e.g. Chris is well /ˈkrɪs ɪz ˈwel/.
•          When the final sound of the preceding word is a voiceless consonants (excluding the consonants listed above), then is has the form /s/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. Jack is well /ˈʤæks ˈwel/.
•          If the final sound of the preceding word is voiced (i.e. a vowel or a voiced consonant (excluding the consonants listed above)), then is has the form /z/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. John is well /ˈʤɒnz ˈwel/.

to: When unstressed, as it usually is, to has the weak form /tə/ when the immediately following word begins with a consonant. This is true for both the preposition, e.g. Go to hell /ˈɡəʊ tə ˈhel/, and the 'to infinitive', e.g. Go to see /ˈɡəʊ tə ˈsiː/.

Biologically speaking, if something bites you, it’s more likely to be female.

An Extreme Sport

ðə ˈfɜːs ˈtaɪm aɪ ˈwent ˈskiːɪŋ | aɪ ˈwɒzn̩ ˈveri ˈɡʊd || aɪ ˈbrəʊk ə ˈleɡ || ˈfɔːʧənətli | ɪt ˈwɒzn̩ ˈwʌn ə ˈmaɪn

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

the: When unstressed, as it usually is, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/ when the following word begins with a consonant.

first: When /t/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is immediately preceded by a consonant (except /l/ and /n/), it is commonly elided/deleted when another consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or in a suffix.

I: Although I is a monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

wasn’t: Although function/grammatical words are generally unstressed in English, negative contractions such as wasn’t (and don’t, won’t, can’t shouldn’t, etc.) are usually stressed.

Although /t/ isn’t usually elided when it is preceded by /n/ (e.g. in bent nail /ˈbent ˈneɪl/, front door /ˈfrʌnt ˈdɔː/), the negative contractions, because of their high frequency, are an exception and their final /t/ can be elided before both consonants and vowels (e.g. I couldn’t say /aɪ ˈkʊdn̩ ˈseɪ/. He didn’t ask /hi ˈdɪdn̩ ˈɑːsk/.), but not before a pause. This is much more common in the case of disyllabic negative contractions (e.g. didn’t, doesn’t, haven’t, hasn’t, hadn’t, shouldn’t, couldn’t, wouldn’t, etc.). In the case of monosyllabic negative contractions (won’t, can’t), elision of /t/ is only usual in rather casual speech.

very: The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

a: When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.

it: Although it is a monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t have a weak form.

of: When unstressed, as it usually is, of has the weak form /əv/. When a consonant immediately follows in the next word, of can have the form /ə/. This is particularly common before /ð/ (e.g. of the, of those, of them, of this, of that) and in high-frequency phrases (e.g. a cup of tea, a bunch of grapes).

mine: Possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs) are usually stressed and do not have weak forms.

The first time I went skiing, I wasn’t very good. I broke a leg. Fortunately, it wasn’t one of mine.

Totally Unpredictable

aɪ ˈnevə ˈmeɪk prɪˈdɪkʃn̩z | ən aɪ ˈnevə ˈwɪl

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Commentary

I: Although I is a monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

predictions: Phonemically, the final syllable of predictions is /ənz/. When this syllable is preceded by /ʃ/, however, the schwa /ə/ often isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /ʃ/ to the position for /n/. This is relatively easy to do because /ʃ/ is a fricative, a category of sound which involves making a very narrow stricture in the vocal tract. It is possible, therefore, for the articulators to move from such a position to the complete closure required for /n/ (accompanied by the lowering of the soft palate to allow air to escape out through the nose) without passing through the position for a vowel and thereby avoiding an intervening schwa /ə/.

Note that in English, syllabic /n/ is not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the syllable /ən/. This means that when we use a special symbol [n̩] for it in transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to show a particular phonetic detail).

The plural s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the noun:

•          /ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
•          /s/ after the remaining voiceless consonants
•          /z/ after vowels and the remaining voiced consonants.

The same pattern applies to plural s, third person singular s and the contraction of is.

and: When unstressed, as it usually is, and has the weak form /ən/ or /ənd/. Some books say that /ən/ is used before consonants and /ənd/ before vowels, but this is not true. While both forms can be heard before consonants and vowels, /ən/ is much more common than /ənd/. Learners can safely use only /ən/ for the weak form of and because it will never be wrong to do so.

will: When an auxiliary verb stands alone to represent a verb phrase, it is stressed and has its strong form. For example: Will you carry this home? ~ Yes, I will /aɪ ˈwɪl/. Can you transcribe whole sentences phonetically? ~ Yes, I can /aɪ ˈkæn/.

I never make predictions, and I never will.

A Bitter Victory

ðə ˈtrʌbl̩ wɪð ðə ˈrætreɪs | ɪz ðət ˈiːvn̩ ɪf ju ˈwɪn | jɔː ˈstɪl ə ˈræt

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

the: When unstressed, as it usually is, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/ when the following word begins with a consonant.

trouble: Phonemically, the final syllable of trouble is /əl/. When this syllable is preceded by /b/, however, the schwa /ə/ isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /b/ to the position for /l/. This is easy to do in the case of /b/ because /b/ is articulated with the two lips and /l/ is articulated with the tongue-tip. These articulators can move independently of each other and so when the lips move apart to release the /b/, the tongue tip is already in position for the /l/ and no intervening schwa /ə/ occurs.

Note that in English, syllabic /l/ is not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the syllable /əl/. This means that when we use a special symbol [l̩] for it in transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to show a particular phonetic detail).

with: Although with is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

that: When unstressed, as it usually is, that as a conjunction or relative pronoun has the weak form /ðət/. Note that the other uses of that do not have weak forms and are always pronounced /ðæt/: pronoun, I know that. /aɪ ˈnəʊ ˈðæt/; determiner, I know that man. /aɪ ˈnəʊ ˈðæt ˈmæn/; adverb, It wasn’t that good. /ɪt ˈwɒzn̩t ˈðæt ˈɡʊd/.

even: Phonemically, the final syllable of even is /ən/. When this syllable is preceded by /v/, however, the schwa /ə/ often isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /v/ to the position for /n/. This is easy to do in the case of /v/ because /v/ is articulated with the lower lip against the upper teeth and /n/ is articulated with the tongue-tip and side-rims (and lowered velum). These articulators can move independently of each other and so when the /v/ is completed and the lower lip moves away from the upper teeth, the tongue tip and side rims (and lowered velum) are already in position for the /n/ and no intervening schwa /ə/ occurs.

Note that in English, syllabic /n/ is not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the syllable /ən/. This means that when we use a special symbol [n̩] for it in transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to show a particular phonetic detail).

if: Although if is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

you: The symbol u represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

you’re: When unstressed, as it usually is, are combines with you to form the contract you’re /jɔː/, which has the same pronunciation as your. When you’re and your are unstressed, they can be pronounced /jɔː/ or with the weak form /jə/. Learners can use the /jɔː/ pronunciation for you’re/your on all occasions because it will always be appropriate. The same cannot be said of the weak form /jə/, however, because it will sometimes sound too casual.

a: When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.

The trouble with the ratrace is that even if you win, you’re still a rat.

How Contrary!

aɪ ˈɔːwɪz ədˈvaɪz ˈpiːpl̩ | ˈnevə tə ˈɡɪv ədˈvaɪs

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

I: Although I is a monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

always: Certain high-frequency words have a variant without /l/ when the /l/ is preceded by /ɔː/ and followed by another consonant, e.g. always, almost, already, alright, etc.

The variants /-wɪz/ and /-weɪz/ appear to be roughly equally frequent in the General British (GB) accent.

people: Phonemically, the final syllable of people is /əl/. When this syllable is preceded by /p/, however, the schwa /ə/ isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /p/ to the position for /l/. This is easy to do in the case of /p/ because /p/ is articulated with the two lips and /l/ is articulated with the tongue-tip. These articulators can move independently of each other and so when the lips move apart to release the /p/, the tongue tip is already in position for the /l/ and no intervening schwa /ə/ occurs.

Note that in English, syllabic /l/ is not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the syllable /əl/. This means that when we use a special symbol [l̩] for it in transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to show a particular phonetic detail).

to: When unstressed, as it usually is, to has the weak form /tə/ when the immediately following word begins with a consonant. This is true for both the preposition, e.g. Go to hell /ˈɡəʊ tə ˈhel/, and the 'to infinitive', e.g. Go to see /ˈɡəʊ tə ˈsiː/.

I always advise people never to give advice.

An English Gentleman

ˈwen ə ˈmæn ˈəʊpənz ə ˈkɑː ˈdɔː fər ɪz ˈwaɪf | ɪts ˈaɪðər ə ˈnjuː ˈkɑː | ɔːr ə ˈnjuː ˈwaɪf

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

when: Although the when is a monosyllabic function/grammatical word, it tends to be stressed and has no weak form.

a: When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.

opens: Although the syllable /ən/ can form a syllabic consonant when preceded by /p/, this isn’t the most common variant and learners can ignore the possibility in this context.

The third person singular s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the verb:

• ·         /ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
• ·         /s/ after the remaining voiceless consonants
• ·         /z/ after vowels and the remaining voiced consonants.

The same pattern applies to plural s, possessive s and the contraction of is.

for: When unstressed, as it usually is, for has the weak form /fə/.

When a word ends in schwa /ə/ and is immediately followed (without a pause) by a word beginning with a vowel, the consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels. This process is known as /r/-liaison and also occurs after /ɑː ɔː ɜː eə ɪə ʊə/.

his: When unstressed, as it usually is, and not immediately preceded by a pause, his has the weak form /ɪz/. After a pause, unstressed his is pronounced /hɪz/ (e.g. His home is his castle. /hɪz ˈhəʊm ɪz ɪz ˈkɑːsl̩/ His brother took his money. /hɪz ˈbrʌðə ˈtʊk ɪz ˈmʌni/ His dog bit his nose. /hɪz ˈdɒɡ ˈbɪt ɪz ˈnəʊz).

it’s: When unstressed, as it usually is, the word is can have three different pronunciations, depending on the final sound of the immediately preceding word:

• ·         When the final sound of the preceding word is /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/, then is has the form /ɪz/, e.g. Chris is well /ˈkrɪs ɪz ˈwel/.
• ·         When the final sound of the preceding word is a voiceless consonants (excluding the consonants listed above), then is has the form /s/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. Jack is well /ˈʤæks ˈwel/.
• ·         If the final sound of the preceding word is voiced (i.e. a vowel or a voiced consonant (excluding the consonants listed above)), then is has the form /z/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. John is well /ˈʤɒnz ˈwel/.

This is the same pattern as with possessive s, plural s and the third person singular s.

either: Both /ˈaɪðə/ and /ˈiːðə/ are common pronunciations in the General British (GB) accent, with /ˈaɪðə/ appearing to be more frequent.

When a man opens a car door for his wife, it’s either a new car or a new wife.

A Terrible Loss

maɪ ˈwaɪf ˈræn əˈweɪ wɪð maɪ ˈbes ˈfrend | ən ˈleʔ mi ˈtel ju | aɪ ˈrɪəli ˈmɪs ɪm

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

my: Although my is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

with: Although with is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

best: When /t/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is immediately preceded by a consonant (except /l/ and /n/), it is commonly elided/deleted when another consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or in a suffix.

and: When unstressed, as it usually is, and has the weak form /ən/ or /ənd/. Some books say that /ən/ is used before consonants and /ənd/ before vowels, but this is not true. While both forms can be heard before consonants and vowels, /ən/ is much more common than /ənd/. Learners can safely use only /ən/ for the weak form of and because it will never be wrong to do so.

letː When /t/ is at the end of a syllable (i.e. in the syllable coda), preceded by a sonorant (i.e. a vowel, a nasal or an approximant) and immediately followed by a consonant (within a word in the the following word), it can be realised as a glottal plosive/stop [ʔ].

meː The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

Although me is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

you: The symbol u represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

When unstressed, as it usually is, you can have the weak form /jə/ before a consonant or a pause. Except in a few common phrases, however, this form is typical of very casual speech. Learners, therefore, are recommended to use /ju/ in unstressed syllables because this will never sound unusual or incorrect.

I: Although I is a monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

really: Real and really traditionally have the /ɪə/ vowel. In the case of real, it is now more usual to use the /iː/ vowel, making real sound the same as reel /riːl/. In the case of really, usage is more mixed and it appears that the traditional variant with /ɪə/ is still more common than the newer variant with /iː/. From the learner’s point of view, young learners (under 30) should probably pronounce real with /iː/ and really with either vowel.

him: When unstressed, as it usually is, him has the weak form /ɪm/.

My wife ran away with my best friend, and let me tell you, I really miss him.