the:
When unstressed, as it usually is, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/ when the following word begins with a
consonant.
reason:
Phonemically, the final syllable of reason
is /ən/. When this syllable is preceded by /z/, however, the schwa /ə/ often
isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /z/
to the position for /n/. This is relatively easy to do because /z/ is a
fricative, a category of sound which involves making a very narrow stricture in
the vocal tract. It is possible, therefore, for the articulators to move from
such a position to the complete closure required for /n/ (accompanied by the
lowering of the soft palate to allow air to escape out through the nose)
without passing through the position for a vowel and thereby avoiding an
intervening schwa /ə/. This results in syllabic /n/.
Note that in English, syllabic /n/ is
not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the
syllable /ən/. This means that when we use a special symbol [n̩] for it in
transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now
using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to
show a particular phonetic detail).
The syllabic /n/ of reason undergoes
assimilation, changing from /n̩/ to /ŋ̩/ because the immediately following word
begins with /ɡ/. The consonant /n/ is a voiced alveolar nasal
and /ŋ/ is a voiced velar nasal. The change from /n/ to /ŋ/ is
a change of place of articulation (not of voicing or of manner of
articulation). The place of articulation of the nasal changes to velar because
the following consonant is velar (/ɡ/ = a voiced velar plosive). It is usual
for /n/ to change its place of articulation to that of an immediately following
consonant, becoming /ŋ/ before velar consonants (/k/ or /ɡ/) or /m/ before
bilabial consonants (/p b m/).
grandchildren:
When /d/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is
immediately preceded by a consonant, it is commonly elided/deleted when another
consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or in a
suffix.
and: When
unstressed, as it usually is, and has the weak form /ən/ or /ənd/.
Some books say that /ən/ is used before consonants and /ənd/ before vowels, but
this is not true. While both forms can be heard before consonants and vowels, /ən/
is much more common than /ənd/. Learners can safely use only /ən/ for the weak
form of and because it will never be wrong to do so.
The /n/ of and undergoes
assimilation, changing from /n/ to /ŋ/ because the immediately following word
begins with /ɡ/. The consonant /n/ is a voiced alveolar nasal
and /ŋ/ is a voiced velar nasal. The change from /n/ to /ŋ/ is
a change of place of articulation (not of voicing or of manner of
articulation). The place of articulation of the nasal changes to velar because
the following consonant is velar (/ɡ/ = a voiced velar plosive). It is usual
for /n/ to change its place of articulation to that of an immediately following
consonant, becoming /ŋ/ before velar consonants (/k/ or /ɡ/) or /m/ before
bilabial consonants (/p b m/).
grandparents:
When /d/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is
immediately preceded by a consonant, it is commonly elided/deleted when another
consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or in a
suffix.
The /n/ of grand undergoes
assimilation, changing from /n/ to /m/ because the immediately following sound
is /p/. The consonant /n/ is a voiced alveolar nasal and /m/
is a voiceless bilabial plosive. The change from /n/ to /m/ is
a change of place of articulation (not of voicing or of manner of
articulation). The place of articulation of the nasal changes to bilabial
because the following consonant is bilabial (/p/ = a voiceless bilabial
plosive). It is usual for /n/ to change its place of articulation to that of an
immediately following consonant, becoming /ŋ/ before velar consonants (/k/ or /ɡ/)
or /m/ before bilabial consonants (/p b m/).
Plural s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the
noun:
/ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
/s/ after the remaining voiceless
consonants
/z/ after vowels and the remaining
voiced consonants.
The same pattern applies to third person
singular s, possessive s and the contraction of is.
because:
Although it’s generally true that schwa /ə/ doesn’t occur in unstressed
syllables in the General British accent, there are a small number of words in
which it can be stressed and the most important of these is because. Learners needn’t be concerned
by this because there is always a non-schwa alternative in such words (/-ˈkɒz/
in the case of because) and it will
never be wrong to use it.
they: Although they is
a monosyllabic function/grammar word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t have
a weak form.
common:
The syllable /ən/ does not form a syllabic consonant when preceded by /m/.
enemy:
The symbol i represents the same
vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We
use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This
distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply
treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols
for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic
transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).
The reason
grandchildren and grandparents get along so well is because they have a common
enemy.
my:
Although my is monosyllabic
function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a
weak form.
mother: When
a word ends in schwa /ə/ and is immediately followed (without a pause) by a
word beginning with a vowel, the consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels.
This process is known as /r/-liaison and also occurs after /ɑː ɔː ɜː eə ɪə ʊə/.
says:
The pronunciation of the word says is
a little irregular. While say is
pronounced /seɪ/, says is pronounced
/sez/.
I’m:
When unstressed, as it usually is, and immediately preceded by I, am
has the weak form /m/, which attaches to the preceding I to form the contraction I’m
/aɪm/.
I:
Although I is a monosyllabic
function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a
weak form.
don’t:
Although function/grammatical words are generally unstressed in English,
negative contractions such as don’t
(and didn’t, won’t, can’tshouldn’t, etc.) are usually stressed.
Although /t/ isn’t usually elided when
it is preceded by /n/ (e.g. in bent nail
/ˈbent ˈneɪl/, front door /ˈfrʌnt ˈdɔː/),
the negative contractions, because of their high frequency, are an exception
and their final /t/ can be elided before both consonants and vowels (e.g. I couldn’t say /aɪ ˈkʊdn̩ ˈseɪ/. He didn’t ask /hi ˈdɪdn̩ ˈɑːsk/.), but
not before a pause. This is much more common in the case of disyllabic negative
contractions (e.g. didn’t, doesn’t, haven’t, hasn’t, hadn’t, shouldn’t, couldn’t, wouldn’t, etc.). In the case of
monosyllabic negative contractions (won’t,
can’t), elision of /t/ is only usual
in rather casual speech.
The final consonant of don’t undergoes assimilation, changing
from /n/ to /m/ because the immediately following word begins with /m/. The
consonant /n/ is articulated at the alveolar
place of articulation, while /m/ is articulated at the bilabial place of articulation. The change from /n/ to /m/ is a
change of place of articulation (not of voicing or of manner of articulation).
The place of articulation of /n/ changes from alveolar to bilabial because the following
consonant is bilabial (/m/ = a voiced bilabial nasal). It is usual for /n/ to
change its place of articulation to that of an immediately following consonant,
becoming /ŋ/ before velar consonants (/k/ or /ɡ/) or /m/ before bilabial
consonants (/p b m/).
because:
Although it’s generally true that schwa /ə/ doesn’t occur in unstressed
syllables in the General British accent, there are a small number of words in
which it can be stressed and the most important of these is because. Learners needn’t be concerned
by this because there is always a non-schwa alternative in such words (/-ˈkɒz/
in the case of because) and it will
never be wrong to use it.
Note that the generalisation about schwa
not occurring in stressed syllables relates to the General British accent. In
other accents, most notably General American, there is no phonemic difference
between schwa and the strut vowel,
both of which can be pronounced with a schwa vowel quality in unstressed and
stressed syllables. This is also true of many of the accents of England and
Wales.
to:
When unstressed, as it usually is, to
has the weak form /tə/ when the immediately following word begins with a
consonant. This is true for both the preposition, e.g. Go to hell /ˈɡəʊ tə ˈhel/, and the 'to infinitive', e.g. Go to see /ˈɡəʊ tə ˈsiː/.
her: The personal pronoun her has it’s strong form here because it
is stressed (for contrast).
am: When
an auxiliary verb stands alone to represent a verb phrase, it is stressed and
has its strong form. For example: Will
you carry this home? ~ Yes, I will
/aɪ ˈwɪl/. Can you transcribe whole
sentences phonetically? ~ Yes, I can
/aɪ ˈkæn/.
My mother-in-law says
I’m effeminate. I don’t mind, because compared to her, I am.
ən ɪˈkɒnəmɪst | ɪz ə ˈpɜːsn̩ hul ˈnəʊ təˈmɒrəʊ | ˈwaɪ ðə ˈθɪŋz i prɪˈdɪktɪd ˈjestədeɪ | ˈdɪdn̩ ˈhæpən təˈdeɪ
Key at bottom of page.
Commentary
an: When unstressed, as
it usually is, the indefinite article an
has the weak form /ən/.
person:
Phonemically, the final syllable of person
is /ən/. When this syllable is preceded by /s/, however, the schwa /ə/ often
isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for
/s/ to the position for /n/. This is relatively easy to do because /s/ is a
fricative, a category of sound which involves making a very narrow stricture in
the vocal tract. It is possible, therefore, for the articulators to move from
such a position to the complete closure required for /n/ (accompanied by the lowering
of the soft palate to allow air to escape out through the nose) without passing
through the position for a vowel and thereby avoiding an intervening schwa /ə/.
Note that in English, syllabic /n/ is
not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the
syllable /ən/. This means that when we use a special symbol [n̩] for it in
transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now
using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to
show a particular phonetic detail).
who’ll: The
symbol u represents the same vowel
phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This
distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply
treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols
for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic
transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).
When unstressed, as it usually is, the
modal verb will has the form /l/ when
it is preceded by who. This weak form
combines with who to form the
contraction who’ll /huːl/ when who is stressed and /(h)ul/ when who is unstressed (note that the version
without /h/ is only possible when who
is a relative pronoun).
the:
When unstressed, as it usually is, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/ when the following word begins with a
consonant.
things:
Plural s has three pronunciations
depending on the sound at the end of the noun:
/ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
/s/ after the remaining voiceless
consonants
/z/ after vowels and the remaining
voiced consonants.
The same pattern applies to third person
singular s, possessive s and the contraction of is.
he:
When unstressed, as it usually is, and not immediately preceded by a pause, he has the weak form /i/. After a pause,
unstressed he is pronounced /hi/
(e.g. He knows he did it. /hi ˈnəʊz i
ˈdɪd ɪt/ He said he could. /hi ˈsed i
ˈkʊd/ He thought he was. /hi ˈθɔːt i
ˈwɒz/).
predicted:
When a word begins with the unstressed prefix pre-, it can be pronounced /prɪ/, /prə/ or /pri/. When dictionaries
such as the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.) give these
three alternatives, it isn’t made clear that the third variant is much less
common than the first two variants in General British.
The regular -ed ending has three pronunciations:
/ɪd/ after /t/ or /d/
/t/ after all other voiceless consonants
/d/ after vowels and all other voiced
consonants
didn’t:
Although function/grammatical words are generally unstressed in English,
negative contractions such as didn’t
(and don’t, won’t, can’tshouldn’t, etc.) are usually stressed.
Although /t/ isn’t usually elided when
it is preceded by /n/ (e.g. in bent nail
/ˈbent ˈneɪl/, front door /ˈfrʌnt ˈdɔː/),
the negative contractions, because of their high frequency, are an exception
and their final /t/ can be elided before both consonants and vowels (e.g. I couldn’t say /aɪ ˈkʊdn̩ ˈseɪ/. He didn’t ask /hi ˈdɪdn̩ ˈɑːsk/.), but
not before a pause. This is much more common in the case of disyllabic negative
contractions (e.g. didn’t, doesn’t, haven’t, hasn’t, hadn’t, shouldn’t, couldn’t, wouldn’t, etc.). In the case of
monosyllabic negative contractions (won’t,
can’t), elision of /t/ is only usual
in rather casual speech.
Phonemically, the final syllable of didn’t is /ən(t)/. When this syllable is
preceded by /d/, however, the schwa /ə/ often isn't pronounced. Instead the
articulators move directly from the position for /d/ to the position for /n/.
This is relatively easy to do because the only difference in the articulation
of /d/ and /n/ is that the soft palate is lowered for /n/. It is possible,
therefore, for the articulators to move from the position for /t/ to the
position for /n/ merely by lowering the soft palate, without passing through
the position for a vowel and thereby avoiding an intervening schwa /ə/. This is
known as nasal release.
happen:
Although it is possible for /ən/ to be realised as a syllabic /n/ when preceded
by /p/, this is the less usual variant and can be ignored for TEFL purposes.
An economist is a
person who’ll know tomorrow why the thing the predicted yesterday didn’t happen
today.
the:
The symbol i represents the same
vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We
use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This
distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply
treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols
for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic
transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).
average:
When schwa /ə/ is followed by /r/ and then an unstressed syllable, the schwa /ə/
is often elided. Memory /ˈmeməri/
becomes /ˈmemri/, separate (adj.)
/ˈsepərət/ becomes /ˈseprət/, etc. In the case of average, the word is so common that for most people /ˈævrɪʤ/ is
probably the form they have in their mental lexicon and the form /ˈævərɪʤ/, if
they occasionally use it, is caused by the influence of the spelling.
aitch:
Many people pronounce this word /heɪʧ/. This variant appears to have arisen
through the belief that the name of a letter should contain the sound it is
most usually associated with.
but:
When unstressed, as it usually is, the conjunction but has the weak form /bət/.
a:
When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.
transfer:
This word can also be pronunced /ˈtrɑːnsfɜː/.
When a word ends in /ɜː/ and is
immediately followed (without a pause) by a word beginning with a vowel, the
consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels. This process is known as
/r/-liaison and also occurs after /ɑː ɔː ə eə ɪə ʊə/.
ofː
When unstressed, as it usually is, of
has the weak form /əv/. When a consonant immediately follows in the next word, of can have the form /ə/. This is
particularly common before /ð/ (e.g. of
the, of those, of them, of this, of that) and in high-frequency phrases
(e.g. a cup of tea, a bunch of grapes).
bones:
Plural s has three pronunciations
depending on the sound at the end of the noun:
/ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
/s/ after the remaining voiceless
consonants
/z/ after vowels and the remaining
voiced consonants.
The same pattern applies to third person
singular s, possessive s and the contraction of is.
from:
When unstressed, as it usually is, from
has the weak form /frəm/.
one: The final consonant of one undergoes assimilation, changing
from /n/ to /ŋ/ because the immediately following word begins with /ɡ/. The
consonant /n/ is a voiced alveolar
nasal and /ŋ/ is a voiced velar nasal.
The change from /n/ to /ŋ/ is a change of place of articulation (not of voicing
or of manner of articulation). The place of articulation of the nasal changes
to velar because the following consonant
is velar (/ɡ/ = a voiced velar plosive). It is usual for /n/ to change its
place of articulation to that of an immediately following consonant, becoming
/ŋ/ before velar consonants (/k/ or /ɡ/) or /m/ before bilabial consonants (/p
b m/).
to:
The symbol u represents the same
vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We
use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This
distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply
treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols
for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic
transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).
The average PhD
thesis is nothing but a transfer of bones from one graveyard to another.
ɪf ju ˈdəʊŋk ˈɡəʊ tu ˈʌðə ˈmenz ˈfjuːnrəlz | ðeɪ ˈwəʊŋk ˈɡəʊ tə ˈjɔːz
Key at bottom of page.
Commentary
if:
Although if is monosyllabic
function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t have a weak
form.
you:
The symbol u represents the same
vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We
use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This
distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply
treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols
for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic
transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).
don’t:
The final consonants of don’t undergo
assimilation, changing from /nt/ to /ŋk/ because the immediately following word
begins with /ɡ/. The consonants /nt/ are both articulated at the alveolar place of articulation, while
/ŋk/ are articulated at the velar place
of articulation. The change from /nt/ to /ŋk/ is a change of place of
articulation (not of voicing or of manner of articulation). The place of
articulation of /nt/ changes from alveolar to velar because the following
consonant is velar (/ɡ/ = a voiced velar plosive). It is usual for /n/ and /t/
to change their place of articulation to that of an immediately following
consonant, becoming /ŋ/ and /k/ before velar consonants (/k/ or /ɡ/) or /m/ and
/p/ before bilabial consonants (/p b m/).
In this context, the glottal
plosive/stop variant of the /t/ phoneme is also a possibility. When /t/ is at
the end of a syllable (i.e. in the syllable coda), preceded by a sonorant (i.e.
a vowel, a nasal or an approximant) and immediately followed by a consonant
(within a word in the following word), it can be realised as a glottal
plosive/stop [ʔ].
to:
The symbol u represents the same
vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We
use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This
distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply
treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols
for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic
transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).
men’s:
Possessive s has three
pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the noun:
/ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
/s/ after the remaining voiceless
consonants
/z/ after vowels and the remaining
voiced consonants.
The same pattern applies to third person
singular s, plural s and the contraction of is.
funerals: When
schwa /ə/ is followed by /r/ and then an unstressed syllable, the schwa /ə/ is
often elided. Funeral /ˈfjuːnərəl/
becomes /ˈfjuːnrəl/, memory /ˈmeməri/
becomes /ˈmemri/, separate (adj.)
/ˈsepərət/ becomes /ˈseprət/, etc.
Plural s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the
noun:
/ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
/s/ after the remaining voiceless
consonants
/z/ after vowels and the remaining
voiced consonants.
The same pattern applies to third person
singular s, possessive s and the contraction of is.
they: Although they is
a monosyllabic function/grammar word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t have
a weak form.
won’t: See don’t above.
If
you don’t go to other men’s funerals, they won’t go to yours.
the:
When unstressed, as it usually is, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/ when the following word begins with a
consonant.
years: The word year also has the less common variant /jɜː/.
Plural s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the
noun:
/ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
/s/ after the remaining voiceless
consonants
/z/ after vowels and the remaining
voiced consonants.
The same pattern applies to third person
singular s, possessive s and the contraction of is.
that:
When unstressed, as it usually is, that
as a conjunction or relative pronoun has the weak form /ðət/. Note that the
other uses of that do not have weak
forms and are always pronounced /ðæt/: pronoun, I know that. /aɪ ˈnəʊ ˈðæt/; determiner, I know that man. /aɪ ˈnəʊ ˈðæt ˈmæn/; adverb, It wasn’t that good. /ɪt ˈwɒzn̩t ˈðæt ˈɡʊd/.
a:
When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.
subtracts: When
/t/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is
immediately preceded by a consonant (except /l/ and /n/), it is commonly
elided/deleted when another consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a
pause) in another word or in a suffix.
from:
When unstressed, as it usually is, from
has the weak form /frəm/.
her:
When unstressed, as it usually is, the determiner her usually has the weak form /ɜː/, or sometimes /ə/. When her is a
pronoun (e.g. I’ve met her. /aɪv ˈmet ə/), it usually has the weak form /ə/, or
sometimes /ɜː/.
are:
When unstressed, as it usually is, are
has the weak form /ə/.
not: Despite being a
monosyllabic function/grammar word, not
is usually stressed and does not have a weak form (except when it forms
negative contractions like doesn’t, couldn’t, etc.).
they’re: When are forms a contraction with they, the contraction is pronounced /ðeə/,
which is the same pronunciation as the words their and there. In more
casual speech, they’re can be further
reduced to /ðə/.
added: The
regular -ed ending has three
pronunciations:
/ɪd/ after /t/ or /d/
/t/ after all other voiceless consonants
/d/ after vowels and all other voiced
consonants
to:
When unstressed, as it usually is, to
has the weak form /tə/ when the immediately following word begins with a
consonant. This is true for both the preposition, e.g. Go to hell /ˈɡəʊ tə ˈhel/, and the 'to infinitive', e.g. Go to see /ˈɡəʊ tə ˈsiː/.
the:
The symbol i represents the same
vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We
use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This
distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply
treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols
for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic
transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).
of:
When unstressed, as it usually is, of
has the weak form /əv/. When a consonant immediately follows in the next word, of can have the form /ə/. This is
particularly common before /ð/ (e.g. of
the, of those, of them, of this, of that) and in high-frequency phrases
(e.g. a cup of tea, a bunch of grapes).
woman/women:
Note that although there is only one difference of spelling between woman and women, in the pronunciation there are two differences: /ˈwʊmən/ vs.
/ˈwɪmɪn/.
The years that a
woman subtracts from her age are not lost. They’re added to the ages of other
women.
when:
In all its various uses when is
usually stressed and has no weak form.
you:
The symbol u represents the same
vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We
use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This
distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply
treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols
for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic
transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).
a:
When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.
everything:
When schwa /ə/ is followed by /r/ and then an unstressed syllable, the schwa /ə/
is often elided. Memory /ˈmeməri/ becomes
/ˈmemri/, separate (adj.) /ˈsepərət/
becomes /ˈseprət/, etc. In the case of every,
the word is so common that for most people /ˈevri/ is probably the form they
have in their mental lexicon and the form /ˈevəri/, if they occasionally use
it, is caused by the influence of the spelling.
The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː
in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes
and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are
using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't
truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).
becomes:
The third person singular s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at
the end of the verb:
/ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
/s/ after the remaining voiceless
consonants
/z/ after vowels and the remaining
voiced consonants.
The same pattern applies to plural s, possessive s and the contraction of is.
When you give a child
a hammer, everything becomes a nail.
there: When there has
its existential use (e.g. There's a man outside. /ðəz ə ˈmæn
ˈaʊtˈsaɪd/ There's a pen on the table. /ðəz ə ˈpen ɒn ðə ˈteɪbl̩/ There
are too many. /ðər ə ˈtuː ˈmeni/ There were two choices. /ðə
wə ˈtuː ˈʧɔɪsɪz), it is usually unstressed and has the weak form /ðə/.
When a word ends in schwa /ə/ and is immediately followed (without a pause) by
a word beginning with a vowel, the consonant /r/ is inserted between the
vowels. This process is known as /r/-liaison and also occurs after /ɑː ɔː ɜː eə
ɪə ʊə/.
are:
When unstressed, as it usually is, are
has the weak form /ə/.
two:
Numbers are usually stressed and don’t have weak forms.
kinds: When /d/ is at
the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is immediately
preceded by a consonant, it is commonly elided/deleted when another consonant
immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or, as in this case,
in a suffix.
of:
When unstressed, as it usually is, of
has the weak form /əv/. When a consonant immediately follows in the next word, of can have the form /ə/. This is
particularly common before /ð/ (e.g. of
the, of those, of them, of this, of that) and in high-frequency phrases
(e.g. a cup of tea, a bunch of grapes).
statistics: Plural s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the
noun:
/ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
/s/ after the remaining voiceless
consonants
/z/ after vowels and the remaining
voiced consonants.
The same pattern applies to third person
singular s, possessive s and the contraction of is.
the:
When unstressed, as it usually is, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/ when the following word begins with a
consonant.
kind
you:
When a word ends with /d/ and the immediately following word begins with /j/,
the /d/ and the /j/ can combine to form /ʤ/. This is known as coalescent
assimilation. It is most common with the high-frequency words you and your, especially when they occur with grammatical inversion, e.g. couldyou /ˈkʊʤu/, wouldyou /ˈwʊʤu/, didyour /ˈdɪʤɔː/, etc.
The symbol u represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː
in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes
and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are
using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't
truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).
look
up/make up: These two phrasal verbs would usually have their
main stress on the word up, but in
this joke the two phrasal verbs are contrasted and so the main stress is put on
the two elements, look and make, that are different and not on up, which is common to both phrasal
verbs.
up: The word up has no weak form.
and: When
unstressed, as it usually is, and has the weak form /ən/ or /ənd/.
Some books say that /ən/ is used before consonants and /ənd/ before vowels, but
this is not true. While both forms can be heard before consonants and vowels, /ən/
is much more common than /ənd/. Learners can safely use only /ən/ for the weak
form of and because it will never be wrong to do so.
There are two kinds
of statistics: the kind you look up and the kind you make up.
what’s:
When unstressed, as it usually is, the word is
can have three different pronunciations, depending on the final sound of the
immediately preceding word:
When the final sound of the preceding
word is /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/, then is has
the form /ɪz/, e.g. Chris is well /ˈkrɪs ɪz ˈwel/.
When the final sound of the preceding
word is a voiceless consonants (excluding the consonants listed above), then is has the form /s/ and forms a
contraction with the preceding word, e.g. Jack is well /ˈʤæks ˈwel/.
If the final sound of the preceding word
is voiced (i.e. a vowel or a voiced consonant (excluding the consonants listed
above)), then is has the form /z/ and
forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. John is well /ˈʤɒnz ˈwel/.
This is the same pattern as with
possessive s, plural s and the third person singular s.
In its various uses, the word what is usually stressed and has no weak
form.
for:
When unstressed, as it usually is, for
has the weak form /fə/.
When a word ends in schwa /ə/ and is
immediately followed (without a pause) by a word beginning with a vowel, the
consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels. This process is known as /r/-liaison
and also occurs after /ɑː ɔː ɜː eə ɪə ʊə/.
a:
When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.
ɪf ju ˈstiːl frəm ˈwʌn ˈɔːθə | ɪts ˈpleɪʤərɪzm̩ || ɪf ju ˈstiːl frəm ˈmeni | ɪts rɪˈsɜːʧ
Key at bottom of page.
Commentary
if:
Although if is monosyllabic
function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t have a weak
form.
you:
The symbol u represents the same
vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We
use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This
distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply
treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols
for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic
transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).
from:
When unstressed, as it usually is, from has the weak form /frəm/.
one:
Numbers are usually stressed and don’t have weak forms.
it’s:
When unstressed, as it usually is, the word is
can have three different pronunciations, depending on the final sound of the
immediately preceding word:
When the final sound of the preceding
word is /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/, then is has
the form /ɪz/, e.g. Chris is well
/ˈkrɪs ɪz ˈwel/.
When the final sound of the preceding
word is a voiceless consonants (excluding the consonants listed above), then is has the form /s/ and forms a
contraction with the preceding word, e.g. Jack
is well /ˈʤæks ˈwel/.
If the final sound of the preceding word
is voiced (i.e. a vowel or a voiced consonant (excluding the consonants listed
above)), then is has the form /z/ and
forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. John is well /ˈʤɒnz ˈwel/.
plagiarism:
In the British tradition of phonetics, stresses which occur after the
primary/main stress in a word are not usually indicated in transcription
(except in compounds, e.g. post office /ˈpəʊst ˌɒfɪs/). For practical TEFL
purposes, it isn’t usually important whether they are marked or not. In the
case of the word plagiarism, however,
a transcription without a such a stress mark is a little misleading. The
transcription /ˈpleɪʤərɪzm̩/ suggests that the word contains a sequence of
schwa /ə/ plus /r/ plus an unstressed vowel and that therefore the schwa /ə/
can be elided (as it often is in memory
/ˈmemri/, factory /ˈfæktri/, corporate /ˈkɔːprət/, etc.), when in
fact the following syllable is stressed, i.e. /ˈpleɪʤəˌrɪzm̩/ and the schwa /ə/
can’t be elided.
many:
The symbol i represents the same
vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We
use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This
distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply
treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols
for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic
transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).
research:
The traditional pronunciation of this word is /rɪˈsɜːʧ/ and the new variant is
/ˈriːsɜːʧ/. At the moment to two variants appear to be roughly equally common,
meaning that the learner can use either. Some people perhaps use /ˈriːsɜːʧ/ for
the noun and /rɪˈsɜːʧ/ for the verb, but there is no general rule and learners
needn’t follow this pattern.
If you steal from one
author, it’s plagiarism. If you steal from many, it’s research.
