Linguistic Research

maɪ ˈfrend hæz ə ˈbeɪbi ˈbɔɪ || aɪm rɪˈkɔːdɪŋ ˈɔːl ðə ˈnɔɪzɪz i ˈmeɪks | səʊ ˈleɪtər aɪ kən ˈɑːsk ɪm | ˈwɒt i wəz ˈseɪɪŋ

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Commentary

my: Although my is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

a: When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.

baby: The final symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

I’m: When unstressed, as it usually is, and immediately preceded by I, am has the weak form /m/, which attaches to the preceding I to form the contraction I’m /aɪm/.

the: When unstressed, as it usually is, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/ when the following word begins with a consonant.

noises: Plural s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the noun:

•          /ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
•          /s/ after the remaining voiceless consonants
•          /z/ after vowels and the remaining voiced consonants.

The same pattern applies to third person singular s, possessive s and the contraction of is.

he: When unstressed, as it usually is, and not immediately preceded by a pause, he has the weak form /i/. After a pause, unstressed he is pronounced /hi/ (e.g. He knows he did it. /hi ˈnəʊz i ˈdɪd ɪt/ He said he could. /hi ˈsed i ˈkʊd/ He thought he was. /hi ˈθɔːt i ˈwɒz/).

becomes: The third person singular s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the verb:

•          /ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
•          /s/ after the remaining voiceless consonants
•          /z/ after vowels and the remaining voiced consonants.

The same pattern applies to plural s, possessive s and the contraction of is.

so: The word so is sometimes stressed and sometimes unstressed. When unstressed, it occasionally has the weak form /sə/ before consonants, but /səʊ/ is always acceptable and learners can safely use it in all unstressed contexts.

later: When a word ends in /ə/ and is immediately followed (without a pause) by a word beginning with a vowel, the consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels. This process is known as /r/-liaison and also occurs after /ɑː eə ɜː ɔː ɪə ʊə/.

I: Although I is a monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

can: When unstressed, as it usually is, the modal verb can has the weak from /kən/.

him: When unstressed, as it usually is, him has the weak form /ɪm/.

was: When unstressed, as it usually is, was has the weak form /wəz/.

My friend has a baby boy. I’m recording all the noises he makes so later I can ask what he was saying.

Generational Change

ðə wəz ˈnəʊ rɪˈspek fə ˈjuːθ | wen ˈaɪ wəz ˈjʌŋ | ən ˈnaʊ ðət aɪm ˈəʊld | ðəz ˈnəʊ rɪˈspek fər ˈeɪʤ

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Commentary

there: When there has its existential use (e.g. There's a man outside. /ðəz ə ˈmæn ˈaʊtˈsaɪd/ There's a pen on the table. /ðəz ə ˈpen ɒn ðə ˈteɪbl̩/ There are too many. /ðər ə ˈtuː ˈmeni/ There were two choices. /ðə wə ˈtuː ˈʧɔɪsɪz), it is usually unstressed and has the weak form /ðə/. 

was: When unstressed, as it usually is, was has the weak form /wəz/.

respect: When /t/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is immediately preceded by a consonant (except /l/ and /n/), it is commonly elided/deleted when another consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or in a suffix.

for: When unstressed, as it usually is, for has the weak form /fə/.

and: When unstressed, as it usually is, and has the weak form /ən/ or /ənd/. Some books say that /ən/ is used before consonants and /ənd/ before vowels, but this is not true. While both forms can be heard before consonants and vowels, /ən/ is much more common than /ənd/. Learners can safely use only /ən/ for the weak form of and because it will never be wrong to do so.

that: When unstressed, as it usually is, that as a conjunction or relative pronoun has the weak form /ðət/. Note that the other uses of that do not have weak forms and are always pronounced /ðæt/: pronoun, I know that. /aɪ ˈnəʊ ˈðæt/; determiner, I know that man. /aɪ ˈnəʊ ˈðæt ˈmæn/; adverb, It wasn’t that good. /ɪt ˈwɒzn̩t ˈðæt ˈɡʊd/.

I’m: When unstressed, as it usually is, and immediately preceded by I, am has the weak form /m/, which attaches to the preceding I to form the contraction I’m /aɪm/.

there’s: When unstressed, as it usually is, the word is can have three different pronunciations, depending on the final sound of the immediately preceding word:

•          When the final sound of the preceding word is /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/, then is has the form /ɪz/, e.g. Chris is well /ˈkrɪs ɪz ˈwel/.
•          When the final sound of the preceding word is a voiceless consonants (excluding the consonants listed above), then is has the form /s/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. Jack is well /ˈʤæks ˈwel/.
•          If the final sound of the preceding word is voiced (i.e. a vowel or a voiced consonant (excluding the consonants listed above)), then is has the form /z/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. John is well /ˈʤɒnz ˈwel/.

This is the same pattern as with possessive s, plural s and the third person singular s.

for: When a word ends in /ə/ and is immediately followed (without a pause) by a word beginning with a vowel, the consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels. This process is known as /r/-liaison and also occurs after /ɑː eə ɜː ɔː ɪə ʊə/.

There was no respect for youth when I was young, and now that I’m old, there’s no respect for age.

A Family Man

ə ˈfɑːðəz ə ˈmæn | hu ˈhæz ˈfəʊtəʊz ɪn ɪz ˈwɒlət | ˈweər ɪz ˈmʌni ˈjuːs tə ˈbiː

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

a: When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.

father’s: When unstressed, as it usually is, the word is can have three different pronunciations, depending on the final sound of the immediately preceding word:

•          When the final sound of the preceding word is /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/, then is has the form /ɪz/, e.g. Chris is well /ˈkrɪs ɪz ˈwel/.
•          When the final sound of the preceding word is a voiceless consonants (excluding the consonants listed above), then is has the form /s/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. Jack is well /ˈʤæks ˈwel/.
•          If the final sound of the preceding word is voiced (i.e. a vowel or a voiced consonant (excluding the consonants listed above)), then is has the form /z/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. John is well /ˈʤɒnz ˈwel/.

who: As a relative pronoun, who is usually unstressed and can have the weak form /u/ or /hu. As an interrogative pronoun, who is usually stressed and has no weak form (e.g. Who is it? /ˈhuː ˈɪz ɪt/ Who's asking? /ˈhuːz ˈɑːskɪŋ).

photos: Plural s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the noun:

•          /ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
•          /s/ after the remaining voiceless consonants
•          /z/ after vowels and the remaining voiced consonants.

The same pattern applies to third person singular s, possessive s and the contraction of is.

in: Although in is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

his: When unstressed, as it usually is, and not immediately preceded by a pause, his has the weak form /ɪz/. After a pause, unstressed his is pronounced /hɪz/ (e.g. His home is his castle. /hɪz ˈhəʊm ɪz ɪz ˈkɑːsl̩/ His brother took his money. /hɪz ˈbrʌðə ˈtʊk ɪz ˈmʌni/ His dog bit his nose. /hɪz ˈdɒɡ ˈbɪt ɪz ˈnəʊz).

where: When a word ends in /eə/ and is immediately followed (without a pause) by a word beginning with a vowel, the consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels. This process is known as /r/-liaison and also occurs after /ɑː ɔː ɜː ə ɪə ʊə/.

money: The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme)

used to: When ‘used to’ is used as a means of talking about the past, it is pronounced /ˈjuːst tə/ before a consonant and /ˈjuːst tu/ before a vowel. This is such a high-frequency word combination that the final voiced consonants /zd/ of ‘used’ /juːzd/ have over time been influenced by the following voiceless consonant /t/ and themselves become voiceless, resulting in /st/. Note that this is an unusual form of assimilation, because in English assimilation usually involves a change of place of articulation, not voicing.

Since the /t/ of ‘used to’ is preceded by a consonant in the same syllable and followed by another consonant, it is usually elided and ‘used to’ pronounced /ˈjuːs tu/ or /ˈjuːs tə/.

A father’s a man who has photos in his wallet where his money used to be.

Individuality

ˈɔːwɪz rɪˈmembə | ðəʧɔːr ˈæbsəˈluːtli juːˈniːk || ˈʤʌs laɪk ˈevriwʌn ˈels

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

always: Certain high-frequency words have a variant without /l/ when the /l/ is preceded by /ɔː/ and followed by another consonant, e.g. always, almost, already, alright, etc.

The variants /-wɪz/ and /-weɪz/ appear to be roughly equally frequent in the General British (GB) accent.

remember: When a word begins with the unstressed prefix re-, it can be pronounced /rɪ/, /rə/ or /ri/. When dictionaries such as the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3^rd ed.) give these three alternatives, it isn’t made clear that the third variant is much less common than the first two variants in General British.

that: When unstressed, as it usually is, that as a conjunction or relative pronoun has the weak form /ðət/. Note that the other uses of that do not have weak forms and are always pronounced /ðæt/: pronoun, I know that. /aɪ ˈnəʊ ˈðæt/; determiner, I know that man. /aɪ ˈnəʊ ˈðæt ˈmæn/; adverb, It wasn’t that good. /ɪt ˈwɒzn̩t ˈðæt ˈɡʊd/.

When a word ends with /t/ and the immediately following word begins with /j/, the /t/ and the /j/ can combine to form /ʧ/. This is known as coalescent assimilation. It is most common with the high-frequency words you and your, especially when they occur with grammatical inversion, e.g. what you /ˈwɒʧu/, ɡot you /ˈɡɒʧu/, that your /ðəʧɔː/, etc.

When a word ends in /ɔː/ and is immediately followed (without a pause) by a word beginning with a vowel, the consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels. This process is known as /r/-liaison and also occurs after /ɑː ɜː ə eə ɪə ʊə/.

just: When /t/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is immediately preceded by a consonant (except /l/ and /n/), it is commonly elided/deleted when another consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or in a suffix.

everyone: When schwa /ə/ is followed by /r/ and then an unstressed syllable, the schwa /ə/ is often elided. Memory /ˈmeməri/ becomes /ˈmemri/, separate (adj.) /ˈsepərət/ becomes /ˈseprət/, etc. In the case of every, the word is so common that for most people /ˈevri/ is probably the form they have in their mental lexicon and the form /ˈevəri/, if they occasionally use it, is caused by the influence of the spelling.

The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

Always remember that you’re absolutely unique. Just like everyone else.

Thinning on Top

aɪ ˈnjuː aɪ wəz ˈɡəʊɪŋ ˈbɔːld | ˈwen ɪt wəz ˈteɪkɪŋ ˈlɒŋɡər ən ˈlɒŋɡə | tə ˈwɒʃ maɪ ˈfeɪs

Key at bottom of page.

Comments

I: Although I is a monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

was: When unstressed, as it usually is, was has the weak form /wəz/.

when: In all its various uses when is usually stressed and has no weak form.

it: Although it is a monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t have a weak form.

longer: The adjectives long, strong and young are pronounced /lɒŋ/, /strɒŋ/ and /jʌŋ/. When the comparative and superlative suffixes are added, however, an additional /ɡ/ is inserted: /lɒŋ ˈlɒŋɡə ˈlɒŋɡɪst/, /strɒŋ ˈstrɒŋɡə ˈstrɒŋɡɪst/, /ˈjʌŋ ˈjʌŋɡə ˈjʌŋɡɪst/.

and: When unstressed, as it usually is, and has the weak form /ən/ or /ənd/. Some books say that /ən/ is used before consonants and /ənd/ before vowels, but this is not true. While both forms can be heard before consonants and vowels, /ən/ is much more common than /ənd/. Learners can safely use only /ən/ for the weak form of and because it will never be wrong to do so.

to: When unstressed, as it usually is, to has the weak form /tə/ when the immediately following word begins with a consonant. This is true for both the preposition, e.g. Go to hell /ˈɡəʊ tə ˈhel/, and the 'to infinitive', e.g. Go to see /ˈɡəʊ tə ˈsiː/.

my: Although my is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

I knew I was going bald when it was taking longer and longer to wash my face.

An Important Rule

ə ˈprepəˈzɪʃn̩ | ɪz ˈsʌmθɪŋ ju ʃʊd ˈnevər ˈend ə ˈsentəns ˈwɪð

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

a: When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.

preposition: Phonemically, the final syllable of preposition is /ən/. When this syllable is preceded by /ʃ/, however, the schwa /ə/ often isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /ʃ/ to the position for /n/. This is relatively easy to do because /ʃ/ is a fricative, a category of sound which involves making a very narrow stricture in the vocal tract. It is possible, therefore, for the articulators to move from such a position to the complete closure required for /n/ (accompanied by the lowering of the soft palate to allow air to escape out through the nose) without passing through the position for a vowel and thereby avoiding an intervening schwa /ə/.

Note that in English, syllabic /n/ is not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the syllable /ən/. This means that when we use a special symbol [n̩] for it in transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to show a particular phonetic detail).

you: The symbol u represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

should: When unstressed, as it often is, the modal verb should can be pronounced /ʃʊd/ or with the weak form /ʃəd/. For the sake of simplicity, learners can use the pronunciation /ʃʊd/ for both stressed and unstressed should and ignore the weak form.

never: When a word ends in schwa /ə/ and is immediately followed (without a pause) by a word beginning with a vowel, the consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels. This process is known as /r/-liaison and also occurs after /ɑː ɔː ɜː eə ɪə ʊə/.

sentence: The syllable /əns/ often results in syllabic consonant when preceded by /t/ (e.g. importance, pittance), but not usually when the /t/ is preceded by /n/ (e.g. repentance /rɪˈpentəns/, acquaintance /əˈkweɪntəns/).

A preposition is something you should never end a sentence with.

A Shortcut

ˈwaɪz əˈbriːviˈeɪʃn̩ | ˈsʌʧ ə ˈlɒŋ ˈwɜːd

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

why’s: When unstressed, as it usually is, the word is can have three different pronunciations, depending on the final sound of the immediately preceding word:

•          When the final sound of the preceding word is /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/, then is has the form /ɪz/, e.g. Chris is well /ˈkrɪs ɪz ˈwel/.
•          When the final sound of the preceding word is a voiceless consonants (excluding the consonants listed above), then is has the form /s/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. Jack is well /ˈʤæks ˈwel/.
•          If the final sound of the preceding word is voiced (i.e. a vowel or a voiced consonant (excluding the consonants listed above)), then is has the form /z/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. John is well /ˈʤɒnz ˈwel/.

The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

abbreviation: Phonemically, the final syllable of abbreviation is /ən/. When this syllable is preceded by /ʃ/, however, the schwa /ə/ often isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /ʃ/ to the position for /n/. This is relatively easy to do because /ʃ/ is a fricative, a category of sound which involves making a very narrow stricture in the vocal tract. It is possible, therefore, for the articulators to move from such a position to the complete closure required for /n/ (accompanied by the lowering of the soft palate to allow air to escape out through the nose) without passing through the position for a vowel and thereby avoiding an intervening schwa /ə/.

Note that in English, syllabic /n/ is not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the syllable /ən/. This means that when we use a special symbol [n̩] for it in transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to show a particular phonetic detail).

such: The word such is often stressed, but when it isn’t (notably in the phrase such as), it occasionally has the weak form /səʧ/.

a: When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.

Why’s ‘abbreviation’ such a long word?

True Romance

aɪv ˈbiːn ɪn ˈlʌv wɪð ðə ˈseɪm ˈwʊmən | fə ˈfɔːti ˈjɪəz || ɪf maɪ ˈwaɪf ˈevə ˈfaɪnz ˈaʊt | ʃil ˈkɪl mi

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

[Don't worry if you find this difficult. Don't let yourself be put off. The same phenomena will come up again and again in these transcriptions. There'll be plenty of opportunities for them to sink in over time. Slow and steady, a little each day, is the key to success.]

I’ve: When unstressed, as it usually is, auxiliary have has the weak form /v/ when preceded by the pronouns I, you, we or they. The weak form combines with these pronouns to form the contractions I’ve /aɪv/, you’ve /ju(ː)v/, we’ve /wi(ː)v/ and they’ve /ðeɪv/.

in: Although in is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

with: Although with is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

the: When unstressed, as it usually is, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/ when the following word begins with a consonant.

for: When unstressed, as it usually is, for has the weak form /fə/.

forty: The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

if: Although if is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

my: Although my is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

finds: When /d/ is at the end of a syllable (i.e. in a syllable coda) and is immediately preceded by a consonant, it is commonly elided/deleted when another consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or, as in this case, in a suffix.

out: The word out is usually stressed and has no weak form.

she’ll: When unstressed, as it usually is, the modal verb will has the form /l/ when it is preceded by one of the personal pronouns I, you, he, she, we or they (but not it, after which is has the form /əl/). This weak form combines with these personal pronouns to form the contractions I’ll /aɪl/, you’ll /ju(ː)l/, he’ll /hi(ː)l/, she’ll /ʃi(ː)l/, we’ll /wi(ː)l/, they’ll /ðeɪl/.

I’ve been in love with the same woman for forty years. If my wife ever finds out, she’ll kill me.

A Milk Habit

aɪ ˈsliːp laɪk ə ˈbeɪbi || ˈevri ˈθriː ˈaʊəz | aɪ ˈweɪk ˈʌp ˈlʊkɪŋ fər ə ˈbɒtl̩

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

[Don't worry if you find this overwhelming. Don't let yourself be put off. The same phenomena will come up again and again in these transcriptions. There'll be plenty of opportunities for them to sink in over time. Slow and steady, a little each day, is the key to success.]

Explanation: The idiom sleep like a baby means to sleep very well. The teller contrasts this with a literal interpretation of sleeping like a baby: waking up every few hours for a bottle of milk. In the teller’s case, however, the bottle contains an alcoholic drink and he is woken up regularly by the need to drink alcohol.

aː When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.

baby: The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

every: When schwa /ə/ is followed by /r/ and then an unstressed syllable, the schwa /ə/ is often elided. Memory /ˈmeməri/ becomes /ˈmemri/, separate (adj.) /ˈsepərət/ becomes /ˈseprət/, etc. In the case of every, the word is so common that for most people /ˈevri/ is probably the form they have in their mental lexicon and the form /ˈevəri/, if they occasionally use it, is caused by the influence of the spelling.

hours: There is no /h/ at the beginning of the word hour, even though there is an <h> in the spelling.

When a noun ends in a voiced sound (i.e. a vowel or one of the voiced consonants /b d ɡ v ð m n ŋ l/), the regular plural is formed by adding /z/. The same pattern applies to possessive s, third person singular s and the contracted form of is.

The sequence /aʊə/ (and the sequence /aɪə/, also less frequently the sequences /eɪə ɔɪə əʊə/) is often referred to as a ‘triphthong’. This is incorrect. A triphthong is a vowel which glides from one vowel position towards a second and then towards a third, all in one syllable. The sequence /aʊə/ (and /aɪə eɪə ɔɪə əʊə) is a disyllabic sequence of a diphthong (one syllable) and schwa (another syllable).

The triphthong vs. disyllabic sequence confusion is caused by the tendency towards smoothing in this context (more so in the case of /aʊə aɪə/ than the others). Smoothing involves the loss of the gliding element of a diphthong. In the case of /aʊə/, the glide in the direction of /ʊ/ is lost, resulting in the diphthong [aə] and the loss of a syllable. This diphthong can itself be smoothed to [a:], a long open vowel. Depending on the quality used as the starting point of the /aʊ aɪ/ diphthongs, the long open [a:] vowel resulting from smoothing may or may not be identical to the speaker’s /ɑː/ vowel.

Historically, smoothing has led to the word our having the common variant pronunciation /ɑː/ (as a citation form, not merely a realisation of an underlying /aʊə/). In all other cases, however, smoothing is an optional process, some speakers doing it more or less than others or not at all. Learners need not imitate it, or even perhaps should not imitate it because extensive smoothing can be percieved as socially conspicuous or ‘posh’.

for: When unstressed, as it usually is, for has the weak form /fə/.

When a word ends in schwa /ə/ and is immediately followed (without a pause) by a word beginning with a vowel, the consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels. This process is known as /r/-liaison and also occurs after /ɑː ɔː ɜː eə ɪə ʊə/.

for a: The sequence of weak forms /fər ə/ provides the appropriate phonetic context for the elision of schwa /ə/ described above (see every), and although it hasn’t been included in this transcription, for a frequently becomes /frə/ in this context.

bottle: Phonemically, the final syllable of bottle is /əl/. When this syllable is preceded by /t/, however, the schwa /ə/ isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /t/ to the position for /l/. This is easy to do in the case of /t/ because /t/ is articulated with tongue-tip against the alveolar ridge and the side-rims of the tongue against the upper molars, while /l/ is articulated with only the tongue-tip against the alveolar ridge. It is possible to move directly from /t/ to /l/ without an intervening vowel, therefore, merely by lowering the side-rims of the tongue from the side molars and leaving the tongue-tip in place. This is known as lateral release.

Note that in English, syllabic /l/ is not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the syllable /əl/. This means that when we use a special symbol [l̩] for it in transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to show a particular phonetic detail). It is worthwhile including this feature in transcriptions for EFL purposes, however, because it is a difficult area for learners and this draws their attention to it.

I sleep like a baby. Every three hours I wake up looking for a bottle.

A Strange Meal

ˈtuː ˈkænəbl̩z | ər ˈiːtɪŋ ə ˈklaʊn || ˈwʌn ˈsez tə ði ˈʌðə | dəz ˈðɪs ˈteɪs ˈfʌni tə ju

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

[Don't worry if you find this overwhelming. Don't let yourself be put off. The same phenomena will come up again and again in these transcriptions. There'll be plenty of opportunities for them to sink in over time. Slow and steady, a little each day, is the key to success.]

funny: The key to this joke is the two meanings of the word funny: 1) humorous, 2) strange. In fact, utterances containing the word are sometimes ambiguous (for example, if you say John is funny) and people often use the expression Do you mean funny ha ha, or funny peculiar? to ask what meaning was intended.

cannibals: Phonemically, the final syllable of cannibals is /əlz/. When this syllable is preceded by /b/, however, the schwa /ə/ isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /b/ to the position for /l/. This is easy to do in the case of /b/ because /b/ is articulated with the two lips and /l/ is articulated with the tongue-tip. These articulators can move independently of each other and so when the lips move apart to release the /b/, the tongue tip is already in position for the /l/ and no intervening schwa /ə/ occurs.

Note that in English, syllabic /l/ is not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the syllable /əl/. This means that when we use a special symbol [l̩] for it in transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to show a particular phonetic detail). It is worthwhile including this feature in transcriptions for EFL purposes, however, because it is a difficult area for learners and this draws their attention to it.

are: When unstressed, as it usually is, are has the weak form /ə/.

When a word ends in schwa /ə/ and is immediately followed (without a pause) by a word beginning with a vowel, the consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels. This process is known as /r/-liaison and also occurs after /ɑː ɔː ɜː eə ɪə ʊə/.

a: When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.

says: The pronunciation of the word says is a little irregular. While say is pronounced /seɪ/, says is pronounced /sez/.

When a verb ends in a voiced sound (i.e. a vowel or one of the voiced consonants /b d ɡ ʤ v ð z ʒ m n ŋ l/), the third person singular is formed by adding /z/. The same pattern applies to possessive s and plural s.

to: When unstressed, as it usually is, to has the weak form /tə/ when the immediately following word begins with a consonant. This is true for both the preposition, e.g. Go to hell /ˈɡəʊ tə ˈhel/, and the 'to infinitive', e.g. Go to see /ˈɡəʊ tə ˈsiː/.

the: The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

does: When unstressed, as it usually is, auxiliary does has the weak form /dəz/.

taste: When /t/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is immediately preceded by a consonant (except /l/ and /n/), it is commonly elided/deleted when another consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or in a suffix.

you: The symbol u represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

Two cannibals are eating a clown. One says to the other, “Does this taste funny to you?”

A Literate Canine

ə ˈmæn ˈluːzɪz ɪz ˈdɒɡ || səʊ i ˈpʊts ən ˈæd ɪn ðə ˈpeɪpə | ən ði ˈæd ˈsez | ˈhɪə ˈbɔɪ

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

[Don't worry if you find this overwhelming. Don't let yourself be put off. The same phenomena will come up again and again in these transcriptions. There'll be plenty of opportunities for them to sink in over time. Slow and steady, a little each day, is the key to success.]

a: When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.

loses: When a verb ends in /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/, the third person singular is formed by adding /ɪz/ (e.g. kisses /ˈkɪsɪz/, fizzes /ˈfɪzɪz/, wishes /ˈwɪʃɪz/, camouflages /ˈkæməflɑːʒɪz/, churches /ˈʧɜːʧɪz/, judges /ˈʤʌʤɪz/). The same pattern applies to possessive s and plural s.

his: When unstressed, as it usually is, and not immediately preceded by a pause, his has the weak form /ɪz/. After a pause, unstressed his is pronounced /hɪz/ (e.g. His home is his castle. /hɪz ˈhəʊm ɪz ɪz ˈkɑːsl̩/ His brother took his money. /hɪz ˈbrʌðə ˈtʊk ɪz ˈmʌni/ His dog bit his nose. /hɪz ˈdɒɡ ˈbɪt ɪz ˈnəʊz).

he: When unstressed, as it usually is, and not immediately preceded by a pause, he has the weak form /i/. After a pause, unstressed he is pronounced /hi/ (e.g. He knows he did it. /hi ˈnəʊz i ˈdɪd ɪt/ He said he could. /hi ˈsed i ˈkʊd/ He thought he was. /hi ˈθɔːt i ˈwɒz/).

The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

puts: When a verb ends in a voiceless consonant /p t k f θ/ (excluding /s ʃ ʧ/, see loses above), the third person singular is formed by adding /s/ (e.g. sips /sɪps/, hits /hɪts/, licks /lɪks/, stuffs /stʌfs/, unearths /ʌnˈɜːθs). The same pattern applies to possessive s and plural s.

anː When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article an has the weak form /ən/.

the: When unstressed, as it usually is, and immediately followed by a word beginning with a consonant, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/.

and: When unstressed, as it usually is, and has the weak form /ən/ or /ənd/. Some books say that /ən/ is used before consonants and /ənd/ before vowels, but this is not true. While both forms can be heard before consonants and vowels, /ən/ is much more common than /ənd/. Learners can safely use only /ən/ for the weak form of and because it will never be wrong to do so.

says: The pronunciation of the word says is a little irregular. While say is pronounced /seɪ/, says is pronounced /sez/.

When a verb ends in a voiced sound (i.e. a vowel or one of the voiced consonants /b d ɡ v ð m n ŋ l/), the third person singular is formed by adding /z/. The same pattern applies to possessive s and plural s.

A man loses his dog. So he puts an ad in the paper, and the ad says, “Here, boy!”

A Mathematical Problem

ðər ə ˈθriː ˈkaɪnz ə ˈpiːpl̩ || ˈðəʊz u ˈkæŋ ˈkaʊnt | ən ˈðəʊz u ˈkɑːnt

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

[Don't worry if you find this overwhelming. Don't let yourself be put off. The same phenomena will come up again and again in these transcriptions. There'll be plenty of opportunities for them to sink in over time. Slow and steady, a little each day, is the key to success.]

there: When there has its existential use (e.g. There's a man outside. /ðəz ə ˈmæn ˈaʊtˈsaɪd/ There's a pen on the table. /ðəz ə ˈpen ɒn ðə ˈteɪbl̩/ There are too many. /ðər ə ˈtuː ˈmeni/ There were two choices. /ðə wə ˈtuː ˈʧɔɪsɪz), it is usually unstressed and has the weak form /ðə/. 

When a word ends in schwa /ə/ and is immediately followed (without a pause) by a word beginning with a vowel, the consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels. This process is known as /r/-liaison and also occurs after /ɑː ɔː ɜː eə ɪə ʊə/.

areː When unstressed, as it usually is, are has the weak form /ə/.

kindsː When /d/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is immediately preceded by a consonant, it is commonly elided/deleted when another consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or, as in this case, in a suffix.

ofː When unstressed, as it usually is, of has the weak form /əv/. When a consonant immediately follows in the next word, of can have the form /ə/. This is particularly common before /ð/ (e.g. of the, of those, of them, of this, of that) and in high-frequency phrases (e.g. a cup of tea, a bunch of grapes).

people: Phonemically, the final syllable of people is /əl/. When this syllable is preceded by /p/, however, the schwa /ə/ isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /p/ to the position for /l/. This is easy to do in the case of /p/ because /p/ is articulated with the two lips and /l/ is articulated with the tongue-tip. These articulators can move independently of each other and so when the lips move apart to release the /p/, the tongue tip is already in position for the /l/ and no intervening schwa /ə/ occurs.

Note that in English, syllabic /l/ is not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the syllable /əl/. This means that when we use a special symbol [l̩] for it in transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to show a particular phonetic detail).

who: As a relative pronoun, who is usually unstressed and can have the weak form /u/. As an interrogative pronoun, who is usually stressed and has no weak form (e.g. Who is it? /ˈhuː ˈɪz ɪt/ Who's asking? /ˈhuːz ˈɑːskɪŋ).

The symbol u represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

can: The word can is usually unstressed and has the weak form /kən/. In this case it is stressed in order to contrast it with the following can't.

The final consonant of can undergoes assimilation, changing from /n/ to /ŋ/ because the immediately following word begins with /k/. The consonant /n/ is a voiced alveolar nasal and /ŋ/ is a voiced velar nasal. The change from /n/ to /ŋ/ is a change of place of articulation (not of voicing or of manner of articulation). The place of articulation of the nasal changes to velar because the following consonant is velar (/k/ = a voiceless velar plosive). It is usual for /n/ to change its place of articulation to that of an immediately following consonant, becoming /ŋ/ before velar consonants (/k/ or /ɡ/) or /m/ before bilabial consonants (/p b m/).

and: When unstressed, as it usually is, and has the weak form /ən/ or /ənd/. Some books say that /ən/ is used before consonants and /ənd/ before vowels, but this is not true. While both forms can be heard before consonants and vowels, /ən/ is much more common than /ənd/. Learners can safely use only /ən/ for the weak form of and because it will never be wrong to do so.

There are three kinds of people. Those who can count and those who can't.