Easter Break

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Linguistic Research

maɪ ˈfrend hæz ə ˈbeɪbi ˈbɔɪ || aɪm rɪˈkɔːdɪŋ ˈɔːl ðə ˈnɔɪzɪz i ˈmeɪks | səʊ ˈleɪtər aɪ kən ˈɑːsk ɪm | ˈwɒt i wəz ˈseɪɪŋ

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

my: Although my is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

a: When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.

baby: The final symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

I’m: When unstressed, as it usually is, and immediately preceded by I, am has the weak form /m/, which attaches to the preceding I to form the contraction I’m /aɪm/.

the: When unstressed, as it usually is, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/ when the following word begins with a consonant.

noises: Plural s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the noun:

•          /ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
•          /s/ after the remaining voiceless consonants
•          /z/ after vowels and the remaining voiced consonants.

The same pattern applies to third person singular s, possessive s and the contraction of is.

he: When unstressed, as it usually is, and not immediately preceded by a pause, he has the weak form /i/. After a pause, unstressed he is pronounced /hi/ (e.g. He knows he did it. /hi ˈnəʊz i ˈdɪd ɪt/ He said he could. /hi ˈsed i ˈkʊd/ He thought he was. /hi ˈθɔːt i ˈwɒz/).

becomes: The third person singular s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the verb:

•          /ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
•          /s/ after the remaining voiceless consonants
•          /z/ after vowels and the remaining voiced consonants.

The same pattern applies to plural s, possessive s and the contraction of is.

so: The word so is sometimes stressed and sometimes unstressed. When unstressed, it occasionally has the weak form /sə/ before consonants, but /səʊ/ is always acceptable and learners can safely use it in all unstressed contexts.

later: When a word ends in /ə/ and is immediately followed (without a pause) by a word beginning with a vowel, the consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels. This process is known as /r/-liaison and also occurs after /ɑː eə ɜː ɔː ɪə ʊə/.

I: Although I is a monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

can: When unstressed, as it usually is, the modal verb can has the weak from /kən/.

him: When unstressed, as it usually is, him has the weak form /ɪm/.

was: When unstressed, as it usually is, was has the weak form /wəz/.

My friend has a baby boy. I’m recording all the noises he makes so later I can ask what he was saying.

Generational Change

ðə wəz ˈnəʊ rɪˈspek fə ˈjuːθ | wen ˈaɪ wəz ˈjʌŋ | ən ˈnaʊ ðət aɪm ˈəʊld | ðəz ˈnəʊ rɪˈspek fər ˈeɪʤ

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

there: When there has its existential use (e.g. There's a man outside. /ðəz ə ˈmæn ˈaʊtˈsaɪd/ There's a pen on the table. /ðəz ə ˈpen ɒn ðə ˈteɪbl̩/ There are too many. /ðər ə ˈtuː ˈmeni/ There were two choices. /ðə wə ˈtuː ˈʧɔɪsɪz), it is usually unstressed and has the weak form /ðə/. 

was: When unstressed, as it usually is, was has the weak form /wəz/.

respect: When /t/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is immediately preceded by a consonant (except /l/ and /n/), it is commonly elided/deleted when another consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or in a suffix.

for: When unstressed, as it usually is, for has the weak form /fə/.

and: When unstressed, as it usually is, and has the weak form /ən/ or /ənd/. Some books say that /ən/ is used before consonants and /ənd/ before vowels, but this is not true. While both forms can be heard before consonants and vowels, /ən/ is much more common than /ənd/. Learners can safely use only /ən/ for the weak form of and because it will never be wrong to do so.

that: When unstressed, as it usually is, that as a conjunction or relative pronoun has the weak form /ðət/. Note that the other uses of that do not have weak forms and are always pronounced /ðæt/: pronoun, I know that. /aɪ ˈnəʊ ˈðæt/; determiner, I know that man. /aɪ ˈnəʊ ˈðæt ˈmæn/; adverb, It wasn’t that good. /ɪt ˈwɒzn̩t ˈðæt ˈɡʊd/.

I’m: When unstressed, as it usually is, and immediately preceded by I, am has the weak form /m/, which attaches to the preceding I to form the contraction I’m /aɪm/.

there’s: When unstressed, as it usually is, the word is can have three different pronunciations, depending on the final sound of the immediately preceding word:

•          When the final sound of the preceding word is /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/, then is has the form /ɪz/, e.g. Chris is well /ˈkrɪs ɪz ˈwel/.
•          When the final sound of the preceding word is a voiceless consonants (excluding the consonants listed above), then is has the form /s/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. Jack is well /ˈʤæks ˈwel/.
•          If the final sound of the preceding word is voiced (i.e. a vowel or a voiced consonant (excluding the consonants listed above)), then is has the form /z/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. John is well /ˈʤɒnz ˈwel/.

This is the same pattern as with possessive s, plural s and the third person singular s.

for: When a word ends in /ə/ and is immediately followed (without a pause) by a word beginning with a vowel, the consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels. This process is known as /r/-liaison and also occurs after /ɑː eə ɜː ɔː ɪə ʊə/.

There was no respect for youth when I was young, and now that I’m old, there’s no respect for age.

Tourism

ˈpiːpl̩ ˈtrævl̩ | tə ˈfɑːrəweɪ ˈpleɪsɪz | tə ˈwɒʧ ɪn ˈfæsəˈneɪʃn̩ | ðə ˈkaɪnd ə ˈθɪŋz | ðeɪ ɪɡˈnɔːr ət ˈhəʊm

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

people: Phonemically, the final syllable of people is /əl/. When this syllable is preceded by /p/, however, the schwa /ə/ isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /p/ to the position for /l/. This is easy to do in the case of /p/ because /p/ is articulated with the two lips and /l/ is articulated with the tongue-tip. These articulators can move independently of each other and so when the lips move apart to release the /p/, the tongue tip is already in position for the /l/ and no intervening schwa /ə/ occurs.

travel: Phonemically, the final syllable of travel is /əl/. When this syllable is preceded by /v/, however, the schwa /ə/ isn't usually pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /v/ to the position for /l/. This is easy to do in the case of /v/ because /v/ is articulated with the lower lip against the upper front teeth and /l/ is articulated with the tongue-tip. These articulators can move independently of each other and so when the lower lip moves away from the upper front teeth, completing the /v/ sound, the tongue tip is already in position for the /l/ and no intervening schwa /ə/ occurs.

Note that in English, syllabic /l/ is not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the syllable /əl/. This means that when we use a special symbol [l̩] for it in transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to show a particular phonetic detail).

to: When unstressed, as it usually is, to has the weak form /tə/ when the immediately following word begins with a consonant. This is true for both the preposition, e.g. Go to hell /ˈɡəʊ tə ˈhel/, and the 'to infinitive', e.g. Go to see /ˈɡəʊ tə ˈsiː/.

faraway: When the first element of a compound word ends in /ɑː/ and the second element beɡins with a vowel, the consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels. This process is known as /r/-liaison and also occurs after /ə ɔː ɜː eə ɪə ʊə/.

places: Plural s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the noun:

•          /ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
•          /s/ after the remaining voiceless consonants
•          /z/ after vowels and the remaining voiced consonants.

The same pattern applies to third person singular s, possessive s and the contraction of is.

in: Although in is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

fascination: Phonemically, the final syllable of temptation is /ən/. When this syllable is preceded by /ʃ/, however, the schwa /ə/ often isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /ʃ/ to the position for /n/. This is relatively easy to do because /ʃ/ is a fricative, a category of sound which involves making a very narrow stricture in the vocal tract. It is possible, therefore, for the articulators to move from such a position to the complete closure required for /n/ (accompanied by the lowering of the soft palate to allow air to escape out through the nose) without passing through the position for a vowel and thereby avoiding an intervening schwa /ə/.

Note that in English, syllabic /n/ is not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the syllable /ən/. This means that when we use a special symbol [n̩] for it in transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to show a particular phonetic detail).

the: When unstressed, as it usually is, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/ when the following word begins with a consonant.

of: When unstressed, as it usually is, of has the weak form /əv/. When a consonant immediately follows in the next word, of can have the form /ə/. This is particularly common before /ð/ (e.g. of the, of those, of them, of this, of that) and in high-frequency phrases (e.g. a cup of tea, a bunch of grapes).

things: See ‘places’ above.

they: Although they is a monosyllabic function/grammar word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t have a weak form.

ignore: When a word ends in /ɔː/ and is immediately followed (without a pause) by a word beginning with a vowel, the consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels. This process is known as /r/-liaison and also occurs after /ɑː eə ɜː ə ɪə ʊə/.

at: When unstressed, as it usually is, at has the weak form /ət/.

People travel to faraway places to watch in fascination the kind of things they ignore at home.

A Family Man

ə ˈfɑːðəz ə ˈmæn | hu ˈhæz ˈfəʊtəʊz ɪn ɪz ˈwɒlət | ˈweər ɪz ˈmʌni ˈjuːs tə ˈbiː

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

a: When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.

father’s: When unstressed, as it usually is, the word is can have three different pronunciations, depending on the final sound of the immediately preceding word:

•          When the final sound of the preceding word is /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/, then is has the form /ɪz/, e.g. Chris is well /ˈkrɪs ɪz ˈwel/.
•          When the final sound of the preceding word is a voiceless consonants (excluding the consonants listed above), then is has the form /s/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. Jack is well /ˈʤæks ˈwel/.
•          If the final sound of the preceding word is voiced (i.e. a vowel or a voiced consonant (excluding the consonants listed above)), then is has the form /z/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. John is well /ˈʤɒnz ˈwel/.

who: As a relative pronoun, who is usually unstressed and can have the weak form /u/ or /hu. As an interrogative pronoun, who is usually stressed and has no weak form (e.g. Who is it? /ˈhuː ˈɪz ɪt/ Who's asking? /ˈhuːz ˈɑːskɪŋ).

photos: Plural s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the noun:

•          /ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
•          /s/ after the remaining voiceless consonants
•          /z/ after vowels and the remaining voiced consonants.

The same pattern applies to third person singular s, possessive s and the contraction of is.

in: Although in is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

his: When unstressed, as it usually is, and not immediately preceded by a pause, his has the weak form /ɪz/. After a pause, unstressed his is pronounced /hɪz/ (e.g. His home is his castle. /hɪz ˈhəʊm ɪz ɪz ˈkɑːsl̩/ His brother took his money. /hɪz ˈbrʌðə ˈtʊk ɪz ˈmʌni/ His dog bit his nose. /hɪz ˈdɒɡ ˈbɪt ɪz ˈnəʊz).

where: When a word ends in /eə/ and is immediately followed (without a pause) by a word beginning with a vowel, the consonant /r/ is inserted between the vowels. This process is known as /r/-liaison and also occurs after /ɑː ɔː ɜː ə ɪə ʊə/.

money: The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme)

used to: When ‘used to’ is used as a means of talking about the past, it is pronounced /ˈjuːst tə/ before a consonant and /ˈjuːst tu/ before a vowel. This is such a high-frequency word combination that the final voiced consonants /zd/ of ‘used’ /juːzd/ have over time been influenced by the following voiceless consonant /t/ and themselves become voiceless, resulting in /st/. Note that this is an unusual form of assimilation, because in English assimilation usually involves a change of place of articulation, not voicing.

Since the /t/ of ‘used to’ is preceded by a consonant in the same syllable and followed by another consonant, it is usually elided and ‘used to’ pronounced /ˈjuːs tu/ or /ˈjuːs tə/.

A father’s a man who has photos in his wallet where his money used to be.

A Polyglot

aɪ ˈspiːk ˈtwelv ˈlæŋɡwɪʤɪz || ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ ɪz maɪ ˈbestəst

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

I: Although I is a monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

languages: Plural s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the noun:

•          /ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
•          /s/ after the remaining voiceless consonants
•          /z/ after vowels and the remaining voiced consonants.

The same pattern applies to third person singular s, possessive s and the contraction of is.

my: Although my is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

quickest: The superlative can have the form /əst/, as here, or /ɪst/.

I speak twelve languages. English is my bestest.

Gossip

ˈevribədi | ʃʊd ˈhæv ət ˈliːs ˈtuː ˈfrenz || ˈwʌn tə ˈtɔːk ˈtuː | ən ˈwʌn tə ˈtɔːk əˈbaʊt

Key at bottom of page:

Commentary

everybody: When schwa /ə/ is followed by /r/ and then an unstressed syllable, the schwa /ə/ is often elided. Memory /ˈmeməri/ becomes /ˈmemri/, separate (adj.) /ˈsepərət/ becomes /ˈseprət/, etc. In the case of every, the word is so common that for most people /ˈevri/ is probably the form they have in their mental lexicon and the form /ˈevəri/, if they occasionally use it, is caused by the influence of the spelling.

The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

should: When unstressed, as it often is, the modal verb should can be pronounced /ʃʊd/ or with the weak form /ʃəd/. For the sake of simplicity, learners can use the pronunciation /ʃʊd/ for both stressed and unstressed should and ignore the weak form.

at: When unstressed, as it usually is, at has the weak form /ət/.

least: When /t/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is immediately preceded by a consonant (except /l/ and /n/), it is commonly elided/deleted when another consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or in a suffix.

two: Numbers are usually stressed and don’t have weak forms.

friends: When /d/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is immediately preceded by a consonant, it is commonly elided/deleted when another consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or, as in this case, in a suffix.

one: Numbers are usually stressed and don’t have weak forms.

to: When unstressed, as it usually is, to has the weak form /tə/ when the immediately following word begins with a consonant. This is true for both the preposition, e.g. Go to hell /ˈɡəʊ tə ˈhel/, and the 'to infinitive', e.g. Go to see /ˈɡəʊ tə ˈsiː/.

to: The second occurrence of this word is stressed because it is contrasted with about, and therefore has its strong form /tuː/.

and: When unstressed, as it usually is, and has the weak form /ən/ or /ənd/. Some books say that /ən/ is used before consonants and /ənd/ before vowels, but this is not true. While both forms can be heard before consonants and vowels, /ən/ is much more common than /ənd/. Learners can safely use only /ən/ for the weak form of and because it will never be wrong to do so.

Everybody should have at least two friends. One to talk to and one to talk about.

The Value of Friendship

ɪf ju ˈlen ˈsʌmwʌn ˈtweni ˈpaʊnz | ən ju ˈnevə ˈsiː ðəm əˈɡen | ɪt wəz ˈprɒbəbli ˈwɜːθ ɪt

Key at bottom of page:

Commentary

if: Although if is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t have a weak form.

you: The symbol u represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

lend: When /d/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is immediately preceded by a consonant, it is commonly elided/deleted when another consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or in a suffix.

twenty: The word twenty can be pronounced with or without the second /t/.

pounds: See lend above.

and: When unstressed, as it usually is, and has the weak form /ən/ or /ənd/. Some books say that /ən/ is used before consonants and /ənd/ before vowels, but this is not true. While both forms can be heard before consonants and vowels, /ən/ is much more common than /ənd/. Learners can safely use only /ən/ for the weak form of and because it will never be wrong to do so.

them: When the pronoun them is unstressed, as it usually is, it has the weak form /ðəm/.

again: The word again can be pronounced /əˈɡeɪn/ or /əˈɡen/.

it: Although it is a monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t have a weak form.

was: When unstressed, as it usually is, was has the weak form /wəz/.

If you lend someone twenty pounds and you never see them again, it was probably worth it.

A Financial Crisis

ɪf ju ˈəʊ ðə ˈbæŋk | ə ˈhʌndrəd ˈdɒləz | ˈðæts ˈjɔː ˈprɒbləm || ɪf ju ˈəʊ ðə ˈbæŋk ə ˈhʌndrəd ˈmɪljən ˈdɒləz | ˈðæts ðə ˈbæŋks ˈprɒbləm

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

if: Although if is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t have a weak form.

you: The symbol u represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

the: When unstressed, as it usually is, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/ when the following word begins with a consonant.

a: When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.

dollars: Plural s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the noun:

•          /ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
•          /s/ after the remaining voiceless consonants
•          /z/ after vowels and the remaining voiced consonants.

The same pattern applies to third person singular s, possessive s and the contraction of is.

that’s: When unstressed, as it usually is, that as a conjunction or relative pronoun has the weak form /ðət/. Note that the other uses of that do not have weak forms and are always pronounced /ðæt/: pronoun, I know that. /aɪ ˈnəʊ ˈðæt/; determiner, I know that man. /aɪ ˈnəʊ ˈðæt ˈmæn/; adverb, It wasn’t that good. /ɪt ˈwɒzn̩t ˈðæt ˈɡʊd/.

When unstressed, as it usually is, the word is can have three different pronunciations, depending on the final sound of the immediately preceding word:

•          When the final sound of the preceding word is /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/, then is has the form /ɪz/, e.g. Chris is well /ˈkrɪs ɪz ˈwel/.
•          When the final sound of the preceding word is a voiceless consonants (excluding the consonants listed above), then is has the form /s/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. Jack is well /ˈʤæks ˈwel/.
•          If the final sound of the preceding word is voiced (i.e. a vowel or a voiced consonant (excluding the consonants listed above)), then is has the form /z/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. John is well /ˈʤɒnz ˈwel/.

This is the same pattern as with possessive s, plural s and the third person singular s.

million: Words which have final /iən/ can also be pronounced /jən/.

bank’s: Possessive s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the noun:

•          /ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
•          /s/ after the remaining voiceless consonants
•          /z/ after vowels and the remaining voiced consonants.

The same pattern applies to third person singular s, plural s and the contraction of is.

If you owe the bank a hundred dollars, that’s your problem. If you owe the bank a hundred million dollars, that’s the bank’s problem.

A Good Little Runner

aɪ ˈhæb maɪ ˈkɑː ˈsɜːvɪst | ði ˈʌðə ˈdeɪ || ðə məˈkænɪk ədˈvaɪz mi | tə ˈkiːp ði ˈɔɪl | ən ˈʧeɪnʤ ðə ˈkɑː

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

I: Although I is a monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

had: The /d/ of had undergoes assimilation, changing from /d/ to /b/ because the immediately following sound is /m/. The consonant /d/ is a voiced alveolar plosive and /b/ is a voiceled bilabial plosive. The change from /d/ to /b/ is a change of place of articulation (not of voicing or of manner of articulation). The place of articulation of the plosive changes to bilabial because the following consonant is bilabial (/m/ = a voiced bilabial nasal). It is usual for /d/ to change its place of articulation to that of an immediately following consonant, becoming /ɡ/ before velar consonants (/k/ or /ɡ/) or /b/ before bilabial consonants (/p b m/).

my: Although my is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

serviced: The regular -ed ending has three pronunciations:

•          /ɪd/ after /t/ or /d/
•          /t/ after all other voiceless consonants
•          /d/ after vowels and all other voiced consonants

the: The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

the: When unstressed, as it usually is, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/ when the following word begins with a consonant.

advised: When /d/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is immediately preceded by a consonant, it is commonly elided/deleted when another consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or in a suffix.

me: See the above.

to: When unstressed, as it usually is, to has the weak form /tə/ when the immediately following word begins with a consonant. This is true for both the preposition, e.g. Go to hell /ˈɡəʊ tə ˈhel/, and the 'to infinitive', e.g. Go to see /ˈɡəʊ tə ˈsiː/.

and: When unstressed, as it usually is, and has the weak form /ən/ or /ənd/. Some books say that /ən/ is used before consonants and /ənd/ before vowels, but this is not true. While both forms can be heard before consonants and vowels, /ən/ is much more common than /ənd/. Learners can safely use only /ən/ for the weak form of and because it will never be wrong to do so.

I had my car serviced the other day. The mechanic advised me to keep the oil and change the car.

It's a Generational Thing

ðə ˈriːzŋ̩ ˈɡrænʧɪldrən | əŋ ˈɡræmpeərənts | ˈɡet əˈlɒŋ ˈsəʊ ˈwel | ɪz bɪˈkəz ðeɪ ˈhæv ə ˈkɒmən ˈenəmi

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

the: When unstressed, as it usually is, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/ when the following word begins with a consonant.

reason: Phonemically, the final syllable of reason is /ən/. When this syllable is preceded by /z/, however, the schwa /ə/ often isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /z/ to the position for /n/. This is relatively easy to do because /z/ is a fricative, a category of sound which involves making a very narrow stricture in the vocal tract. It is possible, therefore, for the articulators to move from such a position to the complete closure required for /n/ (accompanied by the lowering of the soft palate to allow air to escape out through the nose) without passing through the position for a vowel and thereby avoiding an intervening schwa /ə/. This results in syllabic /n/.

Note that in English, syllabic /n/ is not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the syllable /ən/. This means that when we use a special symbol [n̩] for it in transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to show a particular phonetic detail).

The syllabic /n/ of reason undergoes assimilation, changing from /n̩/ to /ŋ̩/ because the immediately following word begins with /ɡ/. The consonant /n/ is a voiced alveolar nasal and /ŋ/ is a voiced velar nasal. The change from /n/ to /ŋ/ is a change of place of articulation (not of voicing or of manner of articulation). The place of articulation of the nasal changes to velar because the following consonant is velar (/ɡ/ = a voiced velar plosive). It is usual for /n/ to change its place of articulation to that of an immediately following consonant, becoming /ŋ/ before velar consonants (/k/ or /ɡ/) or /m/ before bilabial consonants (/p b m/).

grandchildren: When /d/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is immediately preceded by a consonant, it is commonly elided/deleted when another consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or in a suffix.

and: When unstressed, as it usually is, and has the weak form /ən/ or /ənd/. Some books say that /ən/ is used before consonants and /ənd/ before vowels, but this is not true. While both forms can be heard before consonants and vowels, /ən/ is much more common than /ənd/. Learners can safely use only /ən/ for the weak form of and because it will never be wrong to do so.

The /n/ of and undergoes assimilation, changing from /n/ to /ŋ/ because the immediately following word begins with /ɡ/. The consonant /n/ is a voiced alveolar nasal and /ŋ/ is a voiced velar nasal. The change from /n/ to /ŋ/ is a change of place of articulation (not of voicing or of manner of articulation). The place of articulation of the nasal changes to velar because the following consonant is velar (/ɡ/ = a voiced velar plosive). It is usual for /n/ to change its place of articulation to that of an immediately following consonant, becoming /ŋ/ before velar consonants (/k/ or /ɡ/) or /m/ before bilabial consonants (/p b m/).

grandparents: When /d/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is immediately preceded by a consonant, it is commonly elided/deleted when another consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or in a suffix.

The /n/ of grand undergoes assimilation, changing from /n/ to /m/ because the immediately following sound is /p/. The consonant /n/ is a voiced alveolar nasal and /m/ is a voiceless bilabial plosive. The change from /n/ to /m/ is a change of place of articulation (not of voicing or of manner of articulation). The place of articulation of the nasal changes to bilabial because the following consonant is bilabial (/p/ = a voiceless bilabial plosive). It is usual for /n/ to change its place of articulation to that of an immediately following consonant, becoming /ŋ/ before velar consonants (/k/ or /ɡ/) or /m/ before bilabial consonants (/p b m/).

Plural s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the noun:

•          /ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
•          /s/ after the remaining voiceless consonants
•          /z/ after vowels and the remaining voiced consonants.

The same pattern applies to third person singular s, possessive s and the contraction of is.

because: Although it’s generally true that schwa /ə/ doesn’t occur in unstressed syllables in the General British accent, there are a small number of words in which it can be stressed and the most important of these is because. Learners needn’t be concerned by this because there is always a non-schwa alternative in such words (/-ˈkɒz/ in the case of because) and it will never be wrong to use it.

they: Although they is a monosyllabic function/grammar word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t have a weak form.

common: The syllable /ən/ does not form a syllabic consonant when preceded by /m/.

enemy: The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

The reason grandchildren and grandparents get along so well is because they have a common enemy.

Age and Virtue

ˈdəʊn ˈwʌri | əˈbaʊt əˈvɔɪdɪŋ temˈteɪʃn̩ || ˈæʒu ˈɡrəʊ ˈəʊldə | ˈɪt ˈstɑːts əˈvɔɪdɪŋ ˈjuː

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

don’t: Although function/grammatical words are generally unstressed in English, negative contractions such as don’t (and didn’t, won’t, can’t shouldn’t, etc.) are usually stressed.

Although /t/ isn’t usually elided when it is preceded by /n/ (e.g. in bent nail /ˈbent ˈneɪl/, front door /ˈfrʌnt ˈdɔː/), the negative contractions, because of their high frequency, are an exception and their final /t/ can be elided before both consonants and vowels (e.g. I couldn’t say /aɪ ˈkʊdn̩ ˈseɪ/. He didn’t ask /hi ˈdɪdn̩ ˈɑːsk/.), but not before a pause. This is much more common in the case of disyllabic negative contractions (e.g. didn’t, doesn’t, haven’t, hasn’t, hadn’t, shouldn’t, couldn’t, wouldn’t, etc.). In the case of monosyllabic negative contractions (won’t, can’t), elision of /t/ is only usual in rather casual speech.

temptation: Phonemically, the final syllable of temptation is /ən/. When this syllable is preceded by /ʃ/, however, the schwa /ə/ often isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /ʃ/ to the position for /n/. This is relatively easy to do because /ʃ/ is a fricative, a category of sound which involves making a very narrow stricture in the vocal tract. It is possible, therefore, for the articulators to move from such a position to the complete closure required for /n/ (accompanied by the lowering of the soft palate to allow air to escape out through the nose) without passing through the position for a vowel and thereby avoiding an intervening schwa /ə/.

Note that in English, syllabic /n/ is not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the syllable /ən/. This means that when we use a special symbol [n̩] for it in transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to show a particular phonetic detail).

as you: When a word ends with /z/ and the immediately following word begins with /j/, the /z/ and the /j/ can combine to form /ʒ/. This is known as coalescent assimilation. It is most common with the high-frequency words you and your.

The symbol u represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

starts: The third person singular s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the verb:

•          /ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
•          /s/ after the remaining voiceless consonants
•          /z/ after vowels and the remaining voiced consonants.

Don’t worry about avoiding temptation. As you grow older, it starts avoiding you.