Age and Virtue

ˈdəʊn ˈwʌri | əˈbaʊt əˈvɔɪdɪŋ temˈteɪʃn̩ || ˈæʒu ˈɡrəʊ ˈəʊldə | ˈɪt ˈstɑːts əˈvɔɪdɪŋ ˈjuː

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

don’t: Although function/grammatical words are generally unstressed in English, negative contractions such as don’t (and didn’t, won’t, can’t shouldn’t, etc.) are usually stressed.

Although /t/ isn’t usually elided when it is preceded by /n/ (e.g. in bent nail /ˈbent ˈneɪl/, front door /ˈfrʌnt ˈdɔː/), the negative contractions, because of their high frequency, are an exception and their final /t/ can be elided before both consonants and vowels (e.g. I couldn’t say /aɪ ˈkʊdn̩ ˈseɪ/. He didn’t ask /hi ˈdɪdn̩ ˈɑːsk/.), but not before a pause. This is much more common in the case of disyllabic negative contractions (e.g. didn’t, doesn’t, haven’t, hasn’t, hadn’t, shouldn’t, couldn’t, wouldn’t, etc.). In the case of monosyllabic negative contractions (won’t, can’t), elision of /t/ is only usual in rather casual speech.

temptation: Phonemically, the final syllable of temptation is /ən/. When this syllable is preceded by /ʃ/, however, the schwa /ə/ often isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /ʃ/ to the position for /n/. This is relatively easy to do because /ʃ/ is a fricative, a category of sound which involves making a very narrow stricture in the vocal tract. It is possible, therefore, for the articulators to move from such a position to the complete closure required for /n/ (accompanied by the lowering of the soft palate to allow air to escape out through the nose) without passing through the position for a vowel and thereby avoiding an intervening schwa /ə/.

Note that in English, syllabic /n/ is not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the syllable /ən/. This means that when we use a special symbol [n̩] for it in transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to show a particular phonetic detail).

as you: When a word ends with /z/ and the immediately following word begins with /j/, the /z/ and the /j/ can combine to form /ʒ/. This is known as coalescent assimilation. It is most common with the high-frequency words you and your.

The symbol u represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

starts: The third person singular s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the verb:

•          /ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
•          /s/ after the remaining voiceless consonants
•          /z/ after vowels and the remaining voiced consonants.

Don’t worry about avoiding temptation. As you grow older, it starts avoiding you.

An Instant Drink

aɪ ˈbɔːt sm̩ ˈpaʊdəd ˈwɔːtə | bət aɪ ˈdəʊn ˈnəʊ ˈwɒt tu ˈæd

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

I: Although I is a monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

some: When some is a determiner meaning an unspecified number or amount, it is usually unstressed and has the weak form /səm/. When the syllable /əm/ is preceded by /s/, it readily forms a syllabic consonant, as shown in the transcription, the articulators moving direction from the position for /s/ to the position for /m/.

Note that in English, syllabic /m/ is not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the syllable /əm/. This means that when we use a special symbol [m̩] for it in transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to show a particular phonetic detail).

powdered: The regular -ed ending has three pronunciations:

•          /ɪd/ after /t/ or /d/
•          /t/ after all other voiceless consonants
•          /d/ after vowels and all other voiced consonants

but: When unstressed, as it usually is, the conjunction but has the weak form /bət/.

don’t: Although function/grammatical words are generally unstressed in English, negative contractions such as don’t (and didn’t, won’t, can’t shouldn’t, etc.) are usually stressed.

Although /t/ isn’t usually elided when it is preceded by /n/ (e.g. in bent nail /ˈbent ˈneɪl/, front door /ˈfrʌnt ˈdɔː/), the negative contractions, because of their high frequency, are an exception and their final /t/ can be elided before both consonants and vowels (e.g. I couldn’t say /aɪ ˈkʊdn̩ ˈseɪ/. He didn’t ask /hi ˈdɪdn̩ ˈɑːsk/.), but not before a pause. This is much more common in the case of disyllabic negative contractions (e.g. didn’t, doesn’t, haven’t, hasn’t, hadn’t, shouldn’t, couldn’t, wouldn’t, etc.). In the case of monosyllabic negative contractions (won’t, can’t), elision of /t/ is only usual in rather casual speech.

to: The symbol u represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

I bought some powdered water, but I don’t know what to add.

Punctuation and Felines

ˈwɒts ðə ˈdɪfrəns | bɪˈtwiːn ə ˈkæt ən ə ˈkɒmə

ˈwʌn ˈhæz ˈklɔːz | ət ði ˈend əv ɪts ˈpɔːz | ˈwaɪl ði ˈʌðəz ə ˈpɔːz | ət ði ˈend əv ə ˈklɔːz

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

what’s: When unstressed, as it usually is, the word is can have three different pronunciations, depending on the final sound of the immediately preceding word:

•          When the final sound of the preceding word is /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/, then is has the form /ɪz/, e.g. Chris is well /ˈkrɪs ɪz ˈwel/.
•          When the final sound of the preceding word is a voiceless consonants (excluding the consonants listed above), then is has the form /s/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. Jack is well /ˈʤæks ˈwel/.
•          If the final sound of the preceding word is voiced (i.e. a vowel or a voiced consonant (excluding the consonants listed above)), then is has the form /z/ and forms a contraction with the preceding word, e.g. John is well /ˈʤɒnz ˈwel/.

This is the same pattern as with possessive s, plural s and the third person singular s.

the: When unstressed, as it usually is, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/ when the following word begins with a consonant.

difference: When schwa /ə/ is followed by /r/ and then an unstressed syllable, the schwa /ə/ is often elided. Memory /ˈmeməri/ becomes /ˈmemri/, separate (adj.) /ˈsepərət/ becomes /ˈseprət/, etc. In the case of difference, the word is so common that for most people /ˈdɪfrəns/ is probably the form they have in their mental lexicon and the form /ˈdɪfrəns/, if they occasionally use it, is caused by the influence of the spelling.

between: When a word begins with the unstressed prefix be-, it can be pronounced /bɪ/, /bə/ or /bi/. When dictionaries such as the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3^rd ed.) give these three alternatives, it isn’t made clear that the third variant is much less common than the first two variants in General British.

a: When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.

and: When unstressed, as it usually is, and has the weak form /ən/ or /ənd/. Some books say that /ən/ is used before consonants and /ənd/ before vowels, but this is not true. While both forms can be heard before consonants and vowels, /ən/ is much more common than /ənd/. Learners can safely use only /ən/ for the weak form of and because it will never be wrong to do so.

claws: Plural s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the noun:

•          /ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
•          /s/ after the remaining voiceless consonants
•          /z/ after vowels and the remaining voiced consonants.

The same pattern applies to third person singular s, possessive s and the contraction of is.

at: When unstressed, as it usually is, at has the weak form /ət/.

the: The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

of: When unstressed, as it usually is, of has the weak form /əv/. When a consonant immediately follows in the next word, of can have the form /ə/. This is particularly common before /ð/ (e.g. of the, of those, of them, of this, of that) and in high-frequency phrases (e.g. a cup of tea, a bunch of grapes).

paws: See claws above.

other’s: See what’s above.

What’s the difference between a cat and a comma.

One has claws at the end of its paws, while the other’s a pause at the end of a clause.

An Inexact Science

ən ɪˈkɒnəmɪst | ɪz ə ˈpɜːsn̩ hul ˈnəʊ təˈmɒrəʊ | ˈwaɪ ðə ˈθɪŋz i prɪˈdɪktɪd ˈjestədeɪ | ˈdɪdn̩ ˈhæpən təˈdeɪ

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

an: When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article an has the weak form /ən/.

person: Phonemically, the final syllable of person is /ən/. When this syllable is preceded by /s/, however, the schwa /ə/ often isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /s/ to the position for /n/. This is relatively easy to do because /s/ is a fricative, a category of sound which involves making a very narrow stricture in the vocal tract. It is possible, therefore, for the articulators to move from such a position to the complete closure required for /n/ (accompanied by the lowering of the soft palate to allow air to escape out through the nose) without passing through the position for a vowel and thereby avoiding an intervening schwa /ə/.

Note that in English, syllabic /n/ is not a phoneme in its own right, but merely a special way of realising the syllable /ən/. This means that when we use a special symbol [n̩] for it in transcription, it makes our transcription non-phonemic (because we are now using more than one symbol for each phoneme and introducing a special symbol to show a particular phonetic detail).

who’ll: The symbol u represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

When unstressed, as it usually is, the modal verb will has the form /l/ when it is preceded by who. This weak form combines with who to form the contraction who’ll /huːl/ when who is stressed and /(h)ul/ when who is unstressed (note that the version without /h/ is only possible when who is a relative pronoun).

the: When unstressed, as it usually is, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/ when the following word begins with a consonant.

things: Plural s has three pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the noun:

•          /ɪz/ after /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/
•          /s/ after the remaining voiceless consonants
•          /z/ after vowels and the remaining voiced consonants.

The same pattern applies to third person singular s, possessive s and the contraction of is.

he: When unstressed, as it usually is, and not immediately preceded by a pause, he has the weak form /i/. After a pause, unstressed he is pronounced /hi/ (e.g. He knows he did it. /hi ˈnəʊz i ˈdɪd ɪt/ He said he could. /hi ˈsed i ˈkʊd/ He thought he was. /hi ˈθɔːt i ˈwɒz/).

predicted: When a word begins with the unstressed prefix pre-, it can be pronounced /prɪ/, /prə/ or /pri/. When dictionaries such as the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3^rd ed.) give these three alternatives, it isn’t made clear that the third variant is much less common than the first two variants in General British.

The regular -ed ending has three pronunciations:

•          /ɪd/ after /t/ or /d/
•          /t/ after all other voiceless consonants
•          /d/ after vowels and all other voiced consonants

didn’t: Although function/grammatical words are generally unstressed in English, negative contractions such as didn’t (and don’t, won’t, can’t shouldn’t, etc.) are usually stressed.

Although /t/ isn’t usually elided when it is preceded by /n/ (e.g. in bent nail /ˈbent ˈneɪl/, front door /ˈfrʌnt ˈdɔː/), the negative contractions, because of their high frequency, are an exception and their final /t/ can be elided before both consonants and vowels (e.g. I couldn’t say /aɪ ˈkʊdn̩ ˈseɪ/. He didn’t ask /hi ˈdɪdn̩ ˈɑːsk/.), but not before a pause. This is much more common in the case of disyllabic negative contractions (e.g. didn’t, doesn’t, haven’t, hasn’t, hadn’t, shouldn’t, couldn’t, wouldn’t, etc.). In the case of monosyllabic negative contractions (won’t, can’t), elision of /t/ is only usual in rather casual speech.

Phonemically, the final syllable of didn’t is /ən(t)/. When this syllable is preceded by /d/, however, the schwa /ə/ often isn't pronounced. Instead the articulators move directly from the position for /d/ to the position for /n/. This is relatively easy to do because the only difference in the articulation of /d/ and /n/ is that the soft palate is lowered for /n/. It is possible, therefore, for the articulators to move from the position for /t/ to the position for /n/ merely by lowering the soft palate, without passing through the position for a vowel and thereby avoiding an intervening schwa /ə/. This is known as nasal release.

happen: Although it is possible for /ən/ to be realised as a syllabic /n/ when preceded by /p/, this is the less usual variant and can be ignored for TEFL purposes.

An economist is a person who’ll know tomorrow why the thing the predicted yesterday didn’t happen today.

An Extreme Sport

ðə ˈfɜːs ˈtaɪm aɪ ˈwent ˈskiːɪŋ | aɪ ˈwɒzn̩ ˈveri ˈɡʊd || aɪ ˈbrəʊk ə ˈleɡ || ˈfɔːʧənətli | ɪt ˈwɒzn̩ ˈwʌn ə ˈmaɪn

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

the: When unstressed, as it usually is, the definite article the has the weak form /ðə/ when the following word begins with a consonant.

first: When /t/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is immediately preceded by a consonant (except /l/ and /n/), it is commonly elided/deleted when another consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or in a suffix.

I: Although I is a monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

wasn’t: Although function/grammatical words are generally unstressed in English, negative contractions such as wasn’t (and don’t, won’t, can’t shouldn’t, etc.) are usually stressed.

Although /t/ isn’t usually elided when it is preceded by /n/ (e.g. in bent nail /ˈbent ˈneɪl/, front door /ˈfrʌnt ˈdɔː/), the negative contractions, because of their high frequency, are an exception and their final /t/ can be elided before both consonants and vowels (e.g. I couldn’t say /aɪ ˈkʊdn̩ ˈseɪ/. He didn’t ask /hi ˈdɪdn̩ ˈɑːsk/.), but not before a pause. This is much more common in the case of disyllabic negative contractions (e.g. didn’t, doesn’t, haven’t, hasn’t, hadn’t, shouldn’t, couldn’t, wouldn’t, etc.). In the case of monosyllabic negative contractions (won’t, can’t), elision of /t/ is only usual in rather casual speech.

very: The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

a: When unstressed, as it usually is, the indefinite article a has the weak form /ə/.

it: Although it is a monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t have a weak form.

of: When unstressed, as it usually is, of has the weak form /əv/. When a consonant immediately follows in the next word, of can have the form /ə/. This is particularly common before /ð/ (e.g. of the, of those, of them, of this, of that) and in high-frequency phrases (e.g. a cup of tea, a bunch of grapes).

mine: Possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs) are usually stressed and do not have weak forms.

The first time I went skiing, I wasn’t very good. I broke a leg. Fortunately, it wasn’t one of mine.

A Terrible Loss

maɪ ˈwaɪf ˈræn əˈweɪ wɪð maɪ ˈbes ˈfrend | ən ˈleʔ mi ˈtel ju | aɪ ˈrɪəli ˈmɪs ɪm

Key at bottom of page.

Commentary

my: Although my is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

with: Although with is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

best: When /t/ is at the end of a word (more specifically, in a syllable coda) and is immediately preceded by a consonant (except /l/ and /n/), it is commonly elided/deleted when another consonant immediately follows (i.e. without a pause) in another word or in a suffix.

and: When unstressed, as it usually is, and has the weak form /ən/ or /ənd/. Some books say that /ən/ is used before consonants and /ənd/ before vowels, but this is not true. While both forms can be heard before consonants and vowels, /ən/ is much more common than /ənd/. Learners can safely use only /ən/ for the weak form of and because it will never be wrong to do so.

letː When /t/ is at the end of a syllable (i.e. in the syllable coda), preceded by a sonorant (i.e. a vowel, a nasal or an approximant) and immediately followed by a consonant (within a word in the the following word), it can be realised as a glottal plosive/stop [ʔ].

meː The symbol i represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol iː. We use i in unstressed syllables and iː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

Although me is monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

you: The symbol u represents the same vowel phoneme as the symbol uː. We use u in unstressed syllables and uː in stressed syllables. This distinction isn't very helpful for TEFL purposes and learners should simply treat the two symbols as the same. Because we are using two different symbols for one phoneme, this means our transcription isn't truly phonemic (phonemic transcription = one symbol for each phoneme).

When unstressed, as it usually is, you can have the weak form /jə/ before a consonant or a pause. Except in a few common phrases, however, this form is typical of very casual speech. Learners, therefore, are recommended to use /ju/ in unstressed syllables because this will never sound unusual or incorrect.

I: Although I is a monosyllabic function/grammatical word and is usually unstressed, it doesn’t usually have a weak form.

really: Real and really traditionally have the /ɪə/ vowel. In the case of real, it is now more usual to use the /iː/ vowel, making real sound the same as reel /riːl/. In the case of really, usage is more mixed and it appears that the traditional variant with /ɪə/ is still more common than the newer variant with /iː/. From the learner’s point of view, young learners (under 30) should probably pronounce real with /iː/ and really with either vowel.

him: When unstressed, as it usually is, him has the weak form /ɪm/.

My wife ran away with my best friend, and let me tell you, I really miss him.